[Retracted] Adsorption of Crystal Violet Dye from Aqueous Solution using Industrial Pepper Seed Spent: Equilibrium, Thermodynamic, and Kinetic Studies

Sulthana, Razia; Taqui, Syed Noeman; Syed, Usman Taqui; Khan, T. M. Yunus; Khadar, Shaik Dawood Abdul; Mokashi, Imran; Shahapurkar, Kiran; Kalam, M. A.; Murthy, H. C. Ananda; Syed, Akheel Ahmed

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9009214

Adsorption Science & Technology

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Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Conclusions Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Authors’ Contributions Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

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Volume 2022 | Article ID 9009214 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9009214

[Retracted] Adsorption of Crystal Violet Dye from Aqueous Solution using Industrial Pepper Seed Spent: Equilibrium, Thermodynamic, and Kinetic Studies

Razia Sulthana,¹Syed Noeman Taqui,^2,3Usman Taqui Syed,⁴T. M. Yunus Khan,⁵Shaik Dawood Abdul Khadar,⁶Imran Mokashi,⁷Kiran Shahapurkar,⁸M. A. Kalam,⁹H. C. Ananda Murthy,^10,11and Akheel Ahmed Syed³

Academic Editor: Lakshmipathy R

Received07 May 2022

Revised15 Jul 2022

Accepted24 Aug 2022

Published13 Sept 2022

Abstract

The economic viability of adsorbing crystal violet (CV) using pepper seed spent (PSS) as a biosorbent in an aqueous solution has been studied. A parametrical investigation was conducted considering parameters like initial concentration of dye, time of contact, pH value, and temperature variation. The analysis of experimental data obtained was carried out by evaluating with the isotherms of Freundlich, Sips, Tempkin, Jovanovic, Brouers–Sotolongo, Toth, Vieth–Sladek, Radke–Prausnitz, Langmuir, and Redlich–Peterson. The adsorption kinetics were studied by implementing the Dumwald-Wagner, Weber-Morris, pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, film diffusion, and Avrami models. The experimental value of adsorption capacity () was observed to be quite close to the Jovanovic isotherm adsorption capacity () at (), coefficient of correlation of 0.945. The data validation was found to conform to that of pseudo-second-order and Avrami kinetic models. The adsorption process was specified as a spontaneous and endothermic process owing to the thermodynamic parametrical values of , , and . The value of is an indicator of the process’s physical nature. The adsorption of CV to the PSS was authenticated from infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy images. The interactions of the CV-PSS system have been discussed, and the observations noted suggest PSS as a feasible adsorbent to extract CV from an aqueous solution.

1. Introduction

Advanced wastewater treatment methods and technologies are critical for ensuring maximum water quality and removing heavy metals, dyes, and other pollutants from water [1]. Fabrics or surfaces are colored by impregnating using chemical compounds called dyes. Synthetic dyes have been extensively used in the textile, paper making, pharmaceutical, and food packaging industries. The improper methods of processing and dying followed by most of these industries have resulted in the release of tons of dyes in aquatic resources (40,000–50,000 tons). The adverse effects of releasing dyes untreated into water sources have disastrous implications on human health and marine ecology. The dyes are potentially cancer-causing, teratogenic, or mutagenic to the aquatic species. Severe dysfunctions in the human reproduction system, brain, kidney, liver, and nervous system are potential repercussions [1]. Light penetration in water is hampered due to colored dyes, which creates difficulty for the water life processes. Thus, the treatment of industrial wastewater to remove dye traces is essential [2]. The wastage of synthetic dye is about 12% and has been estimated during manufacturing, and 20% of this is released as effluent industrial water waste [3].

The dye content in the industrial wastewater discharge pollutes the water body by causing discoloration, thereby hindering sunlight penetration, resulting in restricting the biological and photochemical processes in water sources [4]. The data reveals the availability of 1 lakh dyes of commercial-grade manufactured at the rate of tons annually [5]. The annual dye consumption has been estimated to be ten thousand tons worldwide, and nearly one hundred tons of untreated dye is released annually as industrial waste into water sources [6].

In the dyeing of paper, nylon, cotton, leather, silk, wool, and others, crystal violet forms a primary dyeing constituent. CV is a highly graded soluble dye with distinct dyeing properties. A quantity of 1 mg L^-1 less is capable of coloration, which clarifies the requirement of treating wastewater of dye contamination [7]. CV is a triarylmethane class of dye that is carcinogenic and can produce severe irritation in the eyes if accidentally consumed or contacted through the skin [8].

Several processes for removing synthetic dyes from the industrial water discharge have been suggested in the literature. The processes are as follows: Fenton process [9], photocatalysis [10], integrated chemical biodegradation [11], electrochemical method [12], and adsorption [13–17]. The economic viability and operational simplicity adjunct with component revival, recovery, and reuse have credited adsorption as the most feasible dye removal technique from wastewater solutions [18]. Activated carbon as an adsorbent for dye removal requires a considerably high cost and is difficult to regenerate. This necessitates the procurement and development of alternate economic adsorbents [19]. Concerning the environmental and health hazards posed due to contamination of water bodies by industrial dyeing, it is of high importance to treat the effluents before discharging them into water sources [20], and in doing, so the adsorption method of wastewater treatment has been reported to be more efficient [21].

The agricultural wastes such as rice husk [3], waste from ginger [22], soya oil extract [23], peelings of lemon [24], cane sawdust [25], tamarind shells [26], maize [27], powder of seashells [28], and papaya fruit seeds [29] are low-cost adsorbents.

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a spice related to the Piperaceae family originating from southern India but is widely grown in tropical places. Vietnam is the world’s highest pepper harvester producing about 34% of the world’s Piper nigrum, also termed Black Gold. Pepper is a spice 5 mm in diameter, and its black color is ascribed to the piperine chemical. In dried form, it is utilized as a flavoring agent for its peculiar taste and medicinal purposes.

Table 1 lists several adsorbents implemented for CV removal from industrial dye wastewater and their maximum crystal violet uptake () values. The adsorbent desired should be mainly available and at a low cost. It should not require prechemical handling and must be available for direct use. It should possess the characteristics of porosity to enhance adsorption.

The parameters identified for efficient handling of effluents generated in large volumes by industries like textile and others can be sufficed through nutraceutical industrial spent (NIS), which are available in plenty. Besides, the NIS has qualities that have not been reported for any other adsorbents. Nutraceuticals are thermally, mechanically, and chemically processed to extract the principal component(s) before being discarded in industry. Thus, the NIS requires no chemical treatment before it is used to remediate CV from waters and industrial effluents. This will add to the advantage of reducing the E-factor [48]. The fibril structure of PSS will trap moisture content, reduce the calorific value, and enhance the emission of toxic gases. Conversely, the same property can be utilized to enhance the sorption of toxic dyes on PSS.

The present research aims to study the adsorption characteristic of PSS, a nutraceutical industrial spent possessing the desired qualities of an excellent biosorbent to remove harmful CV from industrial wastewater at a low cost. Morphological and structural analyses of the adsorbents were conducted. The kinetic study, adsorption isotherms, and thermodynamics related to this adsorption process have been simulated and described comprehensively.

Our research school has demonstrated pioneering efforts to use NIS as filler material for the fabrication of composites [49–52] and as an adsorbent for the bioremediation of toxic dyes [53–64]. Recently, our research school has demonstrated circular economy at the laboratory scale using NIS [65].

The novelty of this work lies in the nutraceutical industrial pepper seed spent which is an environmental-friendly and cost-effective biosorbent to remediate the toxicity of the dye due to the presence of crystal violet in textile industry wastewater. Lastly, the experimental results were complimented with the modeling studies, and the adsorbent regeneration with cost analysis was also investigated.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Adsorbate

Crystal violet (CV), [, , and ], was bought from Sigma Aldrich Private Ltd., Mumbai. CV solution was made by using double-distilled water for dissolving a calculated quantity of dye. Figure 1 represents the CV molecular structure.

2.2. Preparation of Adsorbent

The PSS utilized in the present study was generously granted by M/s. Sami Labs, Bengaluru, India. The spent was washed of impurities like dust using distilled water and dried by baking for 24 hours at 60°C in an oven. After drying, the spent is processed to obtain a particle size ≤177 μm using a sieve of 80 mesh size. The spent particles are stored in plastic bottles without treating chemically or physically for future use.

2.3. Surface Characterization

The morphology of PSS surface was examined using scanning electronic microscope (SEM) (LEO 435 VP model, Japan). FTIR spectrometer (Inter-spec 2020, Spectro Lab, UK) was utilized to identify the adsorbent feature of the PSS. The infrared images before CV adsorption and after adsorption to PSS in the control samples were recorded. The surface charge was determined by pH_z (point of zero charge) value.

2.4. Experimental Study of Adsorption

The experimental study was conducted employing the technique of batch adsorption. A known quantity of PSS (50 mg) was added to a dye concentration range (25-200 mg L^-1) in an Erlenmeyer flask of 250 ml. The solution is stirred at a constant rpm of 170 for 180 minutes under isothermal conditions to achieve a uniform solution [66]. At equilibrium and , the dye concentration was analyzed using distilled double beam UV spectrophotometer (systronics model 117, USA) at 590 nm. The quantity of adsorbed CV, (mg g^-1), was calculated using where and are initial and equilibrium CV concentrations in (mg L^-1), respectively, is the volume of the solution (l), and is the weight of the adsorbent (g).

The study of batch kinetics was conducted on similar lines in measuring CV concentrations in the aqueous solution, but the measurements were done for preset intervals of time. The quantity of adsorbed CV adsorbed at any time interval, (mg g^-1), was determined using where is CV concentration in the liquid phase at any time (mg L^-1). Initial dye concentrations were established between 50 and 200 mg L^-1 in increments of 50 mg L^-1 during a 60-minute adsorption duration (at 5-minute intervals), and the results were analysed.

To investigate the pH effects on dye adsorption, stirring of 50 mg PSS and 50 ml dye solution at 200 mg L^-1 concentration in an isothermal environment was carried out. For a pH range of 2-12, this experiment was repeated at a constant agitation of 170 rpm for a time period of 180 min. The dye concentration measurement was done at 590 nm using a UV-vis spectrophotometer. The pH meter was used to determine the pH level of the solution, and any adjustments were made by diluting with HCl and NaOH. The quantity of dye removed was calculated using the equation

The experiments were done in triplicates, and the results obtained are referenced as the average values of the parameters.

2.5. Modeling Parameter Study

2.5.1. Adsorption Isotherms

The adsorbate and adsorbent interaction is specified by the adsorption study relative to isotherms. The parameters of such a study provide data regarding the interaction methodology, adsorbent affinity, and surface properties. Langmuir and Freundlich’s adsorption models for the surface property study provide prudent equations for single solute samples. The contemporary models to these models are Tempkin, Harkins-Jura, SIPS, Redlich-Peterson, Vieth-Sladek, Radke-Prausnitz, and Toth that provide adsorption information at ambient temperature.

The influencing parameters such as , , and chi-squared test () govern the CV_PSS theoretical model development. Table 2 lists the experimental information such as mathematical equations, isotherms, and influencing parameters. This data defines the developed theoretical model.

2.5.2. Kinetics of Adsorption

The adsorption information obtained from the experimental study was analyzed by implementing pseudo-first- and second-order equations and Avrami kinetics and curve-fitting by the least square method. The concerned equations of kinetic models are stated in Table 3. Diffusion models such as the Dumwald-Wagner diffusion model, film diffusion model, and Weber-Morris diffusion models were incorporated to study the diffusion effect. The adsorption controlling mechanism determination concerning the kinetic models integrated with the study is presented in Table 3.

2.5.3. Thermodynamic Parameters

A process practicability and mechanism are explained by the process energy and its entropy. In the current work, the thermodynamic parameters comprising of change in enthalpy (), change in entropy (), and free energy () were approximated by implementing the rate law conversely to the data obtained from equations in tabulating the adsorption process enthalpy.

3. Analysis of Experimental Outcomes

3.1. Characteristic Study of Spent Surface

3.1.1. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

PSS surface structure was studied employing scanning electron microscopy. The scanning was carried out for pre- and post-CV adsorption. Figure 2(a) is an SEM image of the PSS surface before adsorption, indicating a fibrous channeled and porous structure, potentially improving dye adsorption. Figure 2(b) pictures the pores and gaps noticed in the PSS structure occupied by the dye due to adsorption.

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(b)

3.1.2. FTIR Spectroscopy

Figure 3 represents a broad band range relative to the influence of different parameters [67]. The 3291.44/cm band is concerned with the hydroxyl groups relevant to the adsorbed aqua cellulose. 2920.26/cm band is ascribed to vibrational stretching of –CH bond pertinent to alkyl and alkane groups. C=C olefin stretching is analyzed as influencing the band 1615.47/cm. Band 1417.32/cm resembles methyl groups. The 1026/cm band is attributed to the cellulose in the adsorbent.

PSS adsorption of CV is ascertained by the 3291.35/cm band of the hydroxyl group. The stretching caused by the –CH bond vibrations results in the shift of band from 2916/cm to 2922.92/cm in carbon and hydrogen-bonded alkane-alkyl groups. On the contrary, there is a decrease in the band 1615.47/cm to 1586.51/cm attributed to the imine group present in CV and stretching of C=C bonds. After adsorption, a reduction in the band from 1417.32/cm to 1365.58/cm is noticed in CH₃ and Caryl-N bond [39]. After adsorption, it was identified and commented that a shift in the peaks was noticed in the reduction of band 1062/cm to 1056.94/cm. It was also suggested that new peaks were formed after adsorption due to the disappearance of some peaks. These variations in the FTIR spectra were attributed to the collaboration of functional groups in the process of adsorption. The range of adsorption bands 1000/cm to 600/cm differed later due to chemical variations.

3.1.3. Point of Zero Charge

The procedure endured to determine the point of zero charge (pH_z) was initiated with the preparation of 0.1 M KCl. The pH of 0.1 M KCl was deliberated within 2-12 utilizing sodium hydroxide and HCl. Next, PSS (0.05 g) is added to 0.1 M KCl (50 ml) in a flask of 250 ml. After an incubation period of 24 hours, the pH value of the solution is measured using a pH meter. Figure 4 is the plot of . The intersection of the curves is the point of zero charge, recorded as 7.1 for PSS.

3.2. Studies on Batch Adsorption

3.2.1. Effect of Initial Concentration of Dye and Time of Contact

With an initial increase from the 25 to 200 mg L^-1 concentration of dye, a surge in dye adsorption from 15 to 90 mg g^-1 indicates a rise in the concentration gradient conducting force. Figure 5 expresses the relation between the adsorption of CV and duration contact. The process of adsorption was witnessed to increase with a great extent of contact duration. It can be observed from Figure 5 that after a contact period of 180 min, the CV separation from the solution was maximum. The other relative observations were rapid adsorption of dye onto the external surface during the beginning period and then a slowdown of the process during the adsorption of dye in the pores. At high concentrations, the process of adsorption was swift and decelerated to a constant at equilibrium time.

3.2.2. Adsorbent Quantity Effect

It is critical to determine the minimum adsorbent amount to maximize adsorption. It was calibrated for an adsorbent dosage range of 0.025-0.2 g. It was noticed that with the initial increase in the quantity of adsorbent, the process was expedited. Still, with the continuous addition of the adsorbent, it impeded due to the PSS surface’s capturing by dye molecules [28]. Figure 6 reveals that with the rise in the adsorbent, the amount process of adsorption gets enhanced and later it approaches towards equilibrium with increase in adsorbent dosage.

3.2.3. Effect of Adsorbent Dosage

The amount of adsorbent has a critical influence on the adsorption process. The concentration variation controls the adsorption process capacity at working conditions. Figure 6 is a graphical representation of an increase in the adsorption process with an increase in the concentration of the adsorbent [3]. The maximum experimental equilibrium value decreases from 125 to 40 mg g^-1, i.e., from 0.05 to 0.20 g L^-1 adsorbent dosage of NIPSS.

3.2.4. Temperature Effect

The adsorption process investigation was exhibited at 30°C-50°C. Figure 7 shows the temperature variation effect on the process. The adsorption increased considerably with an increase in the temperature, which categorizes the process as exothermic. The dye molecules acquire high kinetic energy, and their intramolecular diffusion is enhanced with an increase in the solution temperature, thereby improving the adsorption [22]. The interaction between CV and PSS occurs because of molecular dye diffusion with temperature rise [68, 69]. The maximum experimental equilibrium value increases marginally with increase in temperature between 303 K and 323 K as depicted in Figure 7.

3.2.5. pH Influence on the Adsorption

One of the processes controlling factors is the solution pH, which improves the adsorption of dye onto PSS with an increase in it by affecting the surface properties and dye ion variation. A peak rise in the adsorption capacity was observed in the acidic range, probably due to a surplus of H⁺ ion interaction with the cations along with the dye. With an increase in the pH of the solution, the density of charge is reduced. Figure 8 depicts the increase in the process of adsorption owing to the repulsion among charged dye ions, and the adsorbent surface lowers [70]. The maximum experimental equilibrium value increases with an increase in pH from 15 to 185 mg g^-1 and 2 to 12.

3.2.6. Particle Size Effect on Adsorption

Absorbent mesh particle sizes of ≤90, ≥90, ≥120 ≥ 177, ≥355, and ≥550 at a CV concentration of 200 mg L^-1 were investigated for their influence on the adsorption process. Figure 9 describes that there is a drop in the adsorption process with an increase in the particle size. This can be reasoned as due to smaller size of particles increases the surface area contrary to which if the size of particles is large, more resistance to diffusion of mass transfer the interior particles would not be exposed for surface adsorption, subsequently resulting in lower adsorption of dye.

3.3. Isotherms of Adsorption

The interaction of the adsorbent and the adsorbate is important to understand the adsorption process mechanism. This is facilitated by fitting the data of adsorption to various isotherms of adsorption governed by different models. Tables 4, 5, 6, and 7 display the highest values for chi-square (), coefficient of correlation (), peak adsorption capacity (), and other concerned parameters for the desired isotherms. The consideration in Langmuir isotherm is that the surface of adsorption is homogeneous with all points available for transaction with the adsorbate equally containing uniform energy [71]. The assumptions prescribed are for the case of adsorption in monolayer, where molecules of the adsorbate exhibit no transmission on the surface. The present study has predicted a maximum adsorption capacity () of 204.79 mg g^-1 Langmuir isotherm. Conversely, the experimental value is significantly different at 87.26 mg g^-1(Figure 10). Since the Langmuir isotherm is derived from thermodynamic principles, an important metric called the separation () can be predicted [72]. The separation factor is an indicator to access the adsorption system conditions based on the criteria linear (), favorable (), unfavorable (), or irreversible (). In this work, for the concentration of 25–200 mg L^-1, the values obtained were 0.85 and 0.41, which indicates favorable adsorption of dye on PSS. As expected, a decrease in with the higher initial dye concentration signifies more favorable adsorption with increased concentration.

Another proposed adsorption mechanism is that proposed by Freundlich. This isotherm assumes that heterogeneous adsorbate layers can be formed, and an empirical model can be used to describe this process [73]. The metric called the heterogeneity factor () can be estimated from the Freundlich isotherm. This classifies the adsorption mechanism to be chemisorption (), physisorption (), or linear (). This parameter can also be used to quickly identify if a process follows normal Langmuir isotherm or cooperative adsorption . The current experimental investigation revealed the values of and , which indicated adsorption to be physisorption, which concerns Langmuir isotherm. These Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms and the experimentally obtained data ( 0.994 and 0.998, respectively). The Tempkin isotherm uses a thermodynamic approach to explain multiple layers with possible interactions between them. This is in agreement with the Freundlich isotherm. The assumption used in the Tempkin isotherms specifies that the molecules in a covered layer lose the heat of adsorption linearly, and the distribution of maximum energy of adsorption is uniform [74]. The thermodynamic parameter constant can be approximated from the Tempkin isotherm constant. This estimated value of is used to tabulate adsorption heat value, , where gas constant and the temperature in kelvin [K]. The value of is low which substantiates that adsorption is a physical phenomenon. Figure 11 represents experimental data fit () which specifies that Tempkin isotherm elucidates the adsorption of dye onto the adsorbent. Most of the other isotherms are expanded forms of either the Langmuir or Freundlich isotherms. Jovanovic isotherm is an expanded form of Langmuir isotherm, [75] which describes a model considering a single layer and no crosswise interactions, but with an additional exponential term to compensate for experimental result deviations with that of Langmuir isotherm. Looking at , , and values, Langmuir appears to be a better fit than the Jovanovic model (Table 5).

Similarly, the Redlich–Peterson isotherm is an improvised fitting that uses a correction coefficient to the Langmuir-Freundlich equations [76]. At () and (), the equations represent Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm, respectively. The value of obtained specifies the adsorption process tendency towards the Freundlich model. Sips isotherm is better to represent isotherms of combined Langmuir, and Freundlich is the Sips isotherm [77]. The Sips equation translates to Langmuir isotherm at increased adsorbate concentrations and reduced concentration contracts to the Freundlich equation. In this study, the value obtained for the Sips isotherm is 400.86 mg g^-1.

On the contrary, Radke-Prausnitz isotherm [78] predicted of 5.13 mg g^-1 was obtained which was least near the experimentally obtained value. The fits of Sips isotherm (), Radke-Prausnitz isotherm (), and Toth isotherm (). Another empirically determined isotherm model is the Toth isotherm [79]. The Toth isotherm tries to explain the heterogeneous adsorption systems by building on the Langmuir isotherm (Figure 12). The Jovanovic isotherm calculated , the nearest value to the experimental value. value was obtained for Vieth-Sladek model [80]. The fits of Vieth-Sladek (), Brouers-Sotolongo (), and Harkins-Jura () models to experimentally obtained values are depicted in Figure 13. The fits of Tempkin isotherm (), Jovanovic model (), and Redlich-Peterson model () are shown. Harkins-Jura isotherm [81] assumes multiple layers of adsorption of the adsorbent on a heterogeneously distributed porous adsorbate.

The adsorption process mechanism models studied are equations of higher order. The data fitting validation cannot be assured only by considering the value, a statistical parameter compatible with linear models. Thus, the values are used for accurate statistics. The will be a small value if the model and experimental data are the same and a higher value for models that are not compatible with the data from experiments. The analysis of models and understanding of critical parameters (, , and ) makes it possible to arrange isotherms based on their capacity to predict the experimental behavior of the CV-PSS system. With respect to value (closest to actual value to farthest from actual value), Jovanovic > Langmuir > Vieth-Sladek > Sips > Toth > Radke-Prausnitz, whereas, based on (descending order), Vieth-Sladek > Radke-Prausnitz > Sips > Redlich-Peterson > Freundlich > Brouers-Sotolongo > Toth > Langmuir > Jovanovic > Tempkin > Harkins-Jura.

3.4. Kinetics of Adsorption

CV concentration in water is critical in the study of kinetics. CV concentrations considered in the kinetic study were 50, 100, and 200 ppm. These studies show a similarity with the studies reported [22, 25]. By studying the kinetics at 303 K, 313 K, and 323 K temperatures, the variations in adsorption rate with temperature changes were understood. The nonlinear data analysis of the adsorption and desorption process kinetics was done by applying kinetic models, namely, the first-order pseudo model [82], second-order pseudo model [83], Avrami kinetic model [84], Weber-Morris intraparticle diffusion model [85], Dumwald-Wagner kinetic model [86], and film diffusion kinetic model [87]. The parameters approximated are presented in Tables 8 and 9. The second-order pseudo-kinetic model data and experimental data for and are compatible as shown in Figures 14, 15, and 16 for 50 ppm, 100 ppm, and 200 ppm concentrations of CV. It is interesting to observe that the rate of adsorption at the very beginning of the process is very high and then slows down over time until it attains peak adsorption potential, becoming stagnant. It is predictable that with temperature rise, the adsorption potential () increases. It can be concluded from the results that the rate of the adsorption process is not limited.

The Avrami model equations were applied to describe the adsorption of CV onto PSS. The rates of adsorption are expressed as functions of initial CV concentration and duration of the adsorption process. The experimental and theoretical results’ conformity is established from calculated values of , and is represented in Table 9. It was observed that the model would be fit only if the factionary number () as obtained from the prediction of adsorption processes was equal to 1 in all cases. The equilibrium adsorption capacities () predicted were the same as that of pseudo-second-order models and quite near experimentally obtained results. This indicated that CV adsorption kinetics onto PSS was associated with second-order pseudo kinetics concerning time irrespective of the changes in solution initial CV concentration.

The information obtained reveals that the process of adsorption takes place in several steps: firstly, the molecular diffusion of solute from solution to the surface of solid, and secondly, solute molecules diffuse to the PSS pores. To understand solute movement, the data were analyzed to study the effects of diffusion.

The Weber-Morris model (Figure 17) is routinely used to describe molecular diffusion and specifies that at the solute rise varies conversely to the duration of contact (). Thus, the q_t vs. shows a straight line that passes through the origin with a slope () which is a constant rate of diffusion. However, only one mechanism cannot control the adsorption kinetics. It is evident from the experimental results that linear variation exists in multiple ayers for all solute concentrations. At lower temperatures and concentrations of 50 ppm, the adsorption rate spikes, followed by a sudden linear rate change, which further stabilizes relative to time. However, the adsorption rate appears to be linear at higher temperatures. At the solute concentration of 200 ppm, it has been noted that the adsorption rate changes are less apparent. It can be witnessed from Figure 18 that the fit of the film diffusion model for higher temperatures displays good compatibility with the diffusion model at higher and and provides constant , tabulated in Table 9. The conclusion withdrawn from these observations is that at increased temperatures, the process rate is negligibly influenced by diffusion limits. Thus, diffusion limits the process rate. Initially, the solute is absorbed to form a film onto the particle surface, which resists diffusion later and thus changes the adsorption rates. The Dumwald-Wagner model (Figure 19) has also been used to calculate the actual value of , including the correction factor for effects of diffusion (Table 9).

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3.5. Effects of Thermodynamics of Adsorption

The (kJ mol^-1), (kJ mol^-1), and (J mol^-1 K^-1), which are thermodynamic factors of adsorption calculation, were done using where is the adsorbent quantity (g/L), is the equilibrium dye concentration (mg L^-1), is the dye adsorbed per unit adsorbent mass at equilibrium (mg g^-1), is the adsorption affinity, is the gas constant (8.314 J^-1mol^-1K), and temperature is (). The plot of log () vs. , provides the values of and ; after that from Equation (5), is obtained. Table 10 is the collection of thermodynamic parameters.

The positive values confirm that the adsorption process is endothermic. The enthalpy change for adsorption chemical reaction is usually >200 kJ mol^-1, and the process capability enhances with temperature rise. The positive indicates more CV-adsorbent affinity and more volatility at the solution surface. The negative for all temperature attributes reduction in free energy and adsorption of dye CV onto the PSS surface. This establishes the practicability and impulsiveness of adsorption. decreased with a rise in temperature, which indicates an enhancement in the absorption process.

3.6. Adsorbent Regeneration and Its Cost Analysis

The adsorbent regeneration facilitates biomass reuse and recovery of adsorbed materials. The process cost and solvent price are more expensive than the adsorbents used. Hence, it is not an advisable strategy. Apart from this, the E-factor is increased, which is linked to environmental contamination. The overall consideration of these aspects has led to the proposition of a novel method to incorporate waste excreted by dye adsorbed biosorbent as filler material to fabricate thermosets and thermoplastics.

The proposed method of adsorption of a dye on the nutraceutical industrial pepper seed spent was extended to the dye adsorption in the textile industrial effluent. Absorption spectra of industrial effluent IE sample solution with and without the CV dye were recorded. Using the Beer-Lambert law, the absorbance of CV was recorded at different concentrations. It was observed that the absorbance was proportional to the amount of material present. The results indicated that 0.5 g of NIPSS was sufficient for the experiments designed. The findings suggest that this experiment as a proof-of-concept can be explored further and applied to industries on a larger scale.

4. Conclusions

The first-ever study on the use of PSS, a nutraceutical industrial spent, was carried out to develop a green and low-cost biosorbent with a motto to remediate toxic dye CV. The peak value of adsorption obtained was , which was close to that obtained by the Jovanovic isotherm () with the correlation coefficient () of 0.945. In contrast, Vieth–Sladek isotherm gave maximum fitting isotherm (). The experiment results fit the kinetic model of pseudo-second order, which the Avrami model further verified. However, the considerable effect of film diffusion and intraparticle diffusion was revealed. The adsorption was observed to be a spontaneous and endothermic process. The reduced value is attributed to the physical predominance of the process. The FTIR spectrum analysis assured the absorption of CV on PSS. Based on this, the interaction mechanisms that occur in the CV-PSS system have been discussed. It can be concluded that the PSS adsorbent is a fast and efficient means for the removal of dye CV from the solution, which can further be used in alternate structural materials or as fillers when preparing thermoplastics and thermosets adapting works previously performed in our previous studies.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Authors’ Contributions

The authors confirm their contributions to the present work as follows: RS, SNT, and UTS came up with the concept and methodology. Validation and approval of the work were carried out by TMYK and IM; formal work and analysis were done by RS; and concept and original draft preparation were carried out by AAS. Further review and editing was done by RS, KS, MAK, SJ, and HCAM. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend his appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University for funding this work through research groups program 1/214/43.

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