The Role of Probiotics in Managing Glucose Homeostasis in Adults with Prediabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Table 2

The results of subgroup analysis.

Biomarkers	Subgroup		Number of studies	Number of participants; in experiment/control	SMD; (95% CI)	between subgroups	Heterogeneity
							(%)
HbA1c	Region	Oceania	2 [21, 25]	81/74	-0.19 (-0.50, 0.12)	0.19	0	0.43
		Asia	4 [22-24, 27]	157/162	-0.59 (-1.12, -0.07)		79.82	﹤0.001
	Intervention time	<3 m	2 [22, 23]	68/70	-0.88 (-1.79, 0.03)	0.17	82.87	0.02
		≥3 m	4 [21, 24, 25, 27]	170/166	-0.23 (-0.44, -0.02)		0	0.61
	Sample size	<30	3 [23, 25, 27]	62/59	-0.34 (-0.69, 0.02)	0.58	0	0.45
		≥30	3 [21, 22, 24]	176/177	-0.56 (-1.28, 0.15)		91.01	﹤0.001
FBG	Region	Oceania	2 [21, 25]	85/79	0.05 (-0.25, 0.36)	0.21	0	0.42
		Asia	4 [22-24, 27]	157/162	-0.20 (-0.45, 0.06)		21.35	0.35
	Intervention time	<3 m	2 [22, 23]	68/70	-0.34 (-0.67, -0.01)	0.10	0	0.77
		≥3 m	4 [21, 24, 25, 27]	174/171	-0.01 (-0.22, 0.20)		0	0.45
	Sample size	<30	3 [23, 25, 27]	62/59	-0.22 (-0.60, 0.16)	0.48	12.05	0.26
		≥30	3 [21, 22, 24]	180/182	-0.06 (-0.26, 0.15)		0	0.35
HOMA-IR	Region	Oceania	1 [21]	70/68	-0.13 (-0.46, 0.21)	0.31	—	—
		Asia	4 [22-24, 27]	157/162	-0.33 (-0.55, -0.11)		0	0.97
	Intervention time	<3 m	2 [22, 23]	68/70	-0.40 (-0.73, -0.06)	0.38	0	0.99
		≥3 m	3 [21, 24, 27]	159/160	-0.22 (-0.43, 0.00)		0	0.78
	Sample size	<30	2 [23, 27]	47/48	-0.31 (-0.71, 0.09)	0.81	0	0.71
		≥30	3 [21, 22, 24]	180/182	-0.26 (-0.46, -0.05)		0	0.58
Insulin	Region	Oceania	2 [21, 25]	85/79	-0.03 (-0.35, 0.30)	0.63	6.18	0.30
		Asia	4 [22-24, 27]	157/162	-0.13 (-0.42, 0.15)		36.26	0.22
	Intervention time	<3 m	2 [22, 23]	68/70	-0.02 (-0.58, 0.54)	0.66	58.71	0.12
		≥3 m	4 [21, 24, 25, 27]	174/171	-0.15 (-0.36, 0.06)		0	0.52
	Sample size	<30	3 [23, 25, 27]	62/59	-0.14 (-0.49, 0.21)	0.77	0	0.33
		≥30	3 [21, 22, 24]	180/182	-0.07 (-0.35, 0.21)		44.39	0.16
TC	Region	Oceania	2 [21, 25]	84/79	0.04 (-0.27, 0.34)	0.28	0	0.58
		Asia	2 [22, 26]	76/77	-1.66 (-4.74, 1.43)		98.34	﹤0.001
	Intervention time	<3 m	2 [22, 26]	76/77	-1.66 (-4.74, 1.43)	0.28	98.34	﹤0.001
		≥3 m	2 [21, 25]	84/79	0.04 (-0.27, 0.34)		0	0.58
	Sample size	<30	2 [25, 26]	43/38	0.02 (-0.41, 0.45)	0.32	0	0.50
		≥30	2 [21, 22]	117/118	-1.61 (-4.78, 1.56)		98.83	﹤0.001
TG	Region	Oceania	2 [21, 25]	84/79	0.10 (-0.21, 0.40)	0.42	0	0.41
		Asia	2 [22, 26]	76/77	-0.94 (-3.42, 1.54)		97.87	﹤0.001
	Intervention time	<3 m	2 [22, 26]	76/77	-0.94 (-3.42, 1.54)	0.42	97.87	﹤0.001
		≥3 m	2 [21, 25]	84/79	0.10 (-0.21, 0.40)		0	0.41
	Sample size	<30	2 [25, 26]	43/38	0.14 (-0.35, 0.63)	0.34	19.12	0.27
		≥30	2 [21, 22]	117/118	-1.02 (-3.33, 1.29)		98.31	﹤0.001
HDL	Region	Oceania	2 [21, 25]	84/79	0.34 (0.03, 0.64)	0.00	0	0.93
		Asia	2 [22, 26]	76/77	1.31 (0.96, 1.65)		0	0.34
	Intervention time	<3 m	2 [22, 26]	76/77	1.31 (0.96, 1.65)	0.00	0	0.34
		≥3 m	22 [21, 25]	84/79	0.34 (0.03, 0.64)		0	0.93
	Sample size	<30	2 [25, 26]	43/38	0.78 (0.07, 1.48)	0.88	55.88	0.13
		≥30	2 [21, 22]	117/118	0.88 (-0.21, 1.96)		93.48	﹤0.001
LDL	Region	Oceania	2 [21, 25]	84/78	0.03 (-0.28, 0.33)	0.14	0	0.69
		Asia	2 [22, 26]	76/77	-1.98 (-4.60, 0.64)		97.61	﹤0.001
	Intervention time	<3 m	2 [22, 26]	76/77	-1.98 (-4.60, 0.64)	0.14	97.61	﹤0.001
		≥3 m	2 [21, 25]	84/78	0.03 (-0.28, 0.33)		0	0.69
	Sample size	<30	2 [25, 26]	43/38	-0.29 (-1.08, 0.51)	0.42	66.77	0.08
		≥30	2 [21, 22]	117/117	-1.65 (-4.91, 1.61)		98.86	﹤0.001
BMI	Region	Oceania	2 [21, 25]	85/79	0.22 (-0.08, 0.53)	0.80	0	1.00
		Asia	3 [22, 24, 27]	137/142	0.14 (-0.48, 0.75)		84.56	﹤0.001
	Intervention time	<3 m	1 [22]	48/50	0.74 (0.34, 1.15)	0.00	—	—
		≥3 m	4 [21, 24, 25, 27]	174/171	0.03 (-0.21, 0.27)		17.57	0.33
	Sample size	<30	2 [25, 27]	42/39	-0.11 (-0.62, 0.39)	0.24	22.95	0.25
		≥30	3 [21, 22, 24]	180/182	0.29 (-0.16, 0.74)		78.61	0.01

Intervention time: month (m).