Review Article

Generation of Induced Pluripotent Stem (iPS) Cells by Nuclear Reprogramming

Table 1

Nuclear reprogramming: various cell types that can be reprogrammed are shown in Table 1. During reprogramming several cell markers for pluripotency or differentiation are upregulated or downregulated.

PhenomenaFactors

Starting cell types:Keratinocytes, t-cells, fibroblasts, Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), dental pulp stem cells, germ line stem cells, neural stem cells, cord blood stem cells, hair follicle, retina, skeletal muscle.

Factors Upregulated/
Downregulated
(a) Embryonic development—upregulated (Oct4, Sox2, Nanog, Lin-28, NR5A2, TBX3, STAT3 and ZIC3).
Downregulation of differentiation specific genes (PAX6, ATBF1 and SUZ12).
(b) Proliferation—upregulated (Cyclin D1, c-Myc, KLF4, Rem2).
Downregulated (p53, p21, p16INK4A).
(c) Epigenetic—downregulated (DNMT1, HDAC, Histone demethylase).
(d) Signalling pathway—downregulated (TGFβ, Wnt/β catenin, PI3/AKT).
(e) Chromatin—opened (by SWI/SNF).
(f) Miscelleneous—to express (Vitamin C, hypoxia, TERT, E-cadherin).