Adipose Tissue-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: A Promising Biomarker and Therapeutic Strategy for Metabolic Disorders

Table 1

Role of EVs from adipose tissue and different cells of adipose tissue in metabolic diseases.

Source	Interacting cells	Cargos	Mechanisms and roles	Diseases	References
Adipose tissue	Adipocyte	Mitochondria components	Mitigate the syndrome in high-fat-diet mice	Obesity	[19]
	Adipocyte	NPM3	Regulate the stability of PRDM16 mRNA and enhance the expression of browning-related genes	Obesity	[20]
		miRNAs	Improve glucose tolerance and reduce hepatic FGF21 mRNA and circulating FGF21	Obesity	[21]
Adipocyte	Skeletal muscle cell	miR-27a	Induction of insulin resistance in skeletal muscle by inhibition of PPARγ	T2DM	[22]
	Hepatocytes, skeletal muscle cell	miR-222	Inhibition of insulin receptor-1 expression promotes insulin resistance in liver and skeletal muscle cells of obese mice	T2DM	[23]
	Hepatocyte	Mitochondria-associated proteins	Promotes oxygen consumption in receptor cells, reduces lipid accumulation, and lowers blood glucose	Obesity	[19]
	Adipocyte	Adipokine	Inhibition of insulin-induced AKT phosphorylation impairs insulin signaling in hepatocytes	Insulin resistance	[24]
			Reduced insulin-stimulated glucose uptake	Insulin resistance	[25]
	Cardiomyocyte	miR-802-5p	Targeting HSP60 promotes insulin resistance in cardiomyocytes	Cardiovascular diseases	[26]
		iNOS	β3-Adrenergic receptors in brown adipocytes inhibit iNOS-mediated cardioprotection in EVs	Cardiovascular diseases	[27]
	Macrophage		Regulation of macrophage foam cell formation and polarization promotes atherosclerosis	Cardiovascular diseases	[28]
		Lipids	Modulate tissue macrophage differentiation and function	Obesity	[29]
		miR-34a	Inhibition of macrophage M2 polarization promotes obesity-induced adipose inflammation	Obesity	[30]
	Pancreatic β-cell	Insulinotropic protein	Enhancement of insulinotropic GPCR/cAMP/PKA signaling pathway to enhance insulin release	Insulin resistance	[31]
		miRNAs	Affects proliferation and function of pancreatic β-cells	Obesity	[32]
	Hypothalamic neuronal cell	MALAT1	Inhibits miRNA function, affects mTOR signaling, and regulates energy intake	Obesity	[33]
	Colorectal cells	MTTP	MTTP/proline-rich acidic protein 1 (PRAP1) complex inhibits the expression of zinc finger E-box-binding homology box 1 and upregulates glutathione peroxidase 4 and xCT, leading to a decrease in polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio and lipid ROS levels	Advanced colorectal cancer	[34]
Macrophage	Macrophage		Modulation of adipose tissue function and insulin sensitivity promotes activation of macrophage M1 proinflammatory phenotype	Insulin resistance	[35]
	Adipocyte, muscle cell	miR-155	Inhibition of target gene PPARγ suppresses insulin signaling and glucose tolerance	Insulin resistance	[36]
	Adipocyte, myocyte, hepatocyte	miR-29a	Modulation of obesity-associated insulin resistance	Obesity	[37]
	Adipocyte	miRNAs	Affects adipocyte gene expression, differentiation, and insulin-dependent glucose uptake	Obesity	[38]
		MiR-210	Targeting NDUFA4 gene expression regulates glucose uptake and mitochondrial CIV activation to promote diabetes progression	T2DM	[39]
	Macrophage	miR-222-3p	Modulation of macrophage polarization improves diabetic wound healing	Diabetic ulcer	[40]
	Cardiomyocyte	miR-140-5p	Regulation of glutathione synthesis promotes iron death-induced cardiac injury	Cardiovascular diseases	[41]
Adipose-derived stem cells	Macrophage	Tyrosine hydroxylase	Polarized M2 macrophages and white adipose tissue aggregates attenuate adipose inflammation and obesity	Obesity	[42]
	Podocyte		Enhanced miR-486 expression improves diabetic nephropathy	T2DM	[43]
	Fibroblast	miRNA	Activation of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway promotes diabetic wound healing and inhibits inflammatory response	Diabetic ulcer	[44]
	Vascular endothelial cell	Glyoxalase 1	Activation of eNOS/AKT/ERK/P-38 signaling pathway, inhibition of AP-1/ROS/NLRP3/ASC/Caspase-1/IL-1β, and release of VEGF, IGF-1, and FGF to promote angiogenesis	T2DM	[45]
Endothelial cells	Adipocyte	Cav1	Endothelial cells transport Cav1-containing EVs to adipocytes to form Cav1-containing adipocyte EVs	Obesity	[46]