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Phytochemical | Pharmacological effects | References |
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Ursolic acid | (i) In vivo inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity in scopolamine-induced cognitive-impaired Swiss albino mice to improve cognition and performance in a passive avoidance task | [41] |
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Quercetin and quercetin 3,30-dimethyl ether-40-glucoside | (i) In vitro downregulation of Bcl-2 resulting in PC-3 cells’ apoptosis | [39] |
(ii) In vivo inhibition of alpha-reductase enzyme activity to inhibit prostate inflammation | [16] |
(iii) Activates signalling pathways that regulate synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation, ensuring neuronal integrity | [41, 49] |
(iv) Ameliorate neuroinflammation in AD |
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β-sitostenone | (i) In vivo anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antioxidant properties | [41, 50] |
(ii) In vivo reduction of AChE, TNF-α, and corticosterone activities, and improves antioxidant enzymes’ activity |
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Chlorogenic acid | (i) In vivo inhibition of AChE activity in the frontal cortex and hippocampus based on ex vivo studies | [41, 51] |
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Apigenin | (i) In vivo anti-Alzheimer’s, antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties | [41, 52] |
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Catechin | (i) In vitro antioxidant activity | [53, 54] |
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Oleanolic acid | (i) Targets the AMPK in PC-3 cells in vitro to inhibit key metabolic pathways leading to apoptosis | [55, 56] |
(ii) Inhibits IFN-γ, nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase-2 in rat macrophages | [57] |
(iii) Induces phase-2 response by increasing heme oxygenase-1 and NADH-quinone oxidoreductase, to prevent cells’ damage from free radicals and electrophiles | [41, 57] |
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β-amyrin | (i) Exhibits in vitro cytotoxicity to PC-3 cells | [39, 58] |
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Atraric acid | (i) Possess antiandrogenic activity with antiproliferative effects against PC-3 cells | [39, 59] |
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Ferulic acid | (i) Promotes in vitro PC-3 cells’ apoptosis | [39, 58] |
(ii) In vivo inhibition of the alpha-reductase enzyme activity to reduce prostate inflammation | [16, 25, 59] |
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N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide | (i) Promotes apoptosis of PC-3 cells in vitro | [39, 59] |
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β-sitosterol | (i) Exhibits in vitro cytotoxicity and apoptotic effects against the PC-3 and LNCaP cells | [39, 59] |
(ii) Inhibits alpha-reductase enzyme activity, reducing prostate inflammation | [16, 37, 39] |
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Lauric acid | (i) In vitro inhibition of 5-α-reductase enzyme to prevent testosterone conversion to dihydrotestosterone | [39, 60] |
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Myristic acid | (i) In vitro antioxidant activity | [41, 42] |
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Flavonols | (i) In vitro antiproliferative activity against prostate cancer cells | [47] |
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Terpenoids | (i) Antimalarial activity by arresting P. falciparum growth and by inhibiting its biosynthesis of isoprenoids | [12, 61] |
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Tannins | (i) In vitro antimicrobial and antiparasitic activities to avert gastrointestinal diseases | [46] |
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Tannins | (i) In vitro antimicrobial activities against bacterial and fungal strains associated with skin infections | [23, 46, 61–64] |
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Tannins | (i) In vitro inhibition of Streptococcus pneumonia growth to alleviate respiratory disease | [23, 46, 61–64] |
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Tannins | (i) Possess in vitro antimicrobial and wound healing activities | [23, 46, 61–64] |
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