A Systematic Review of Real-Time Medical Simulations with Soft-Tissue Deformation: Computational Approaches, Interaction Devices, System Architectures, and Clinical Validations

Table 7

Classification of developed modelling methods for soft-tissue deformations in real time: combination-based techniques.

Reference	Approach	Modelling methods	Soft-tissue types	Tissue behaviors	Computation time/speed	Geometry discretization	Hardware configurations
Cotin et al. [57]	MD	Precomputation-based FEM (pre-comp FEM) & mass tensor method (MTM) & hybrid modelling method (HMM)	The blood vessel	Linear elasticity	40 Hz (model deformation); 500 Hz (haptic feedback)	760 vertices–4,000 edges; 8,000 tetrahedral elements	233 MHz Dec Alpha Workstation
Yarnitzky et al. [58]	MD	Dynamics-based & FEM	The foot soft-tissue	Linear elasticity	<25 ms (model deformation)	100 nodes	1.6 GHz Dothan Pentium IV CPU, 1 GB RAM
Allard et al. [13]	MD	Multi-cooperative methods (multi-Corp)	NI	NI	NI	NI	NI
Zhu and Gu [59]	MD	Boundary element method (BEM) & mass-spring system (MSM) & particle surface interpolation (PSI)	The human liver	Linear elasticity with an extra mass-spring model	From 0.99 ms to 4.17 ms (model deformation)	From 200 to 1,200 nodes	2.26 GHz Pentium M CPU, GeForce 9650 M GPU, 2 GB RAM