[Retracted] Genistein Protects against Spinal Cord Injury in Mice by Inhibiting Neuroinflammation via TLR4-Mediated Microglial Polarization

Li, Xin-Wu; Wu, Peng; Yao, Jian; Zhang, Kai; Jin, Gen-Yang

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4790344

Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

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Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Data Availability Conflicts of Interest References Copyright Related Articles

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Volume 2022 | Article ID 4790344 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4790344

[Retracted] Genistein Protects against Spinal Cord Injury in Mice by Inhibiting Neuroinflammation via TLR4-Mediated Microglial Polarization

Xin-Wu Li,¹Peng Wu,¹Jian Yao,¹Kai Zhang,²and Gen-Yang Jin¹

Academic Editor: Fahd Abd Algalil

Received22 Feb 2022

Revised02 Apr 2022

Accepted06 Apr 2022

Published22 Apr 2022

Abstract

Objective. The present study was designed to study the effect of genistein on spinal cord injury (SCI) in mice and to explore its underlying mechanisms. Methods. We established SCI mouse model, and genistein was administered for treatment. We used the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) exercise rating scale to evaluate exercise recovery, and the detection of spinal cord edema was done using the wet/dry weight method. Apoptosis was determined by TUNEL staining, and inflammation was evaluated by measuring inflammatory factors by an ELISA kit. The expression of M1 and M2 macrophage markers was determined using flow cytometry, and the expression of proteins was detected using immunoblotting. Results. Genistein treatment not only improved the BBB score but also reduced spinal cord edema in SCI mice. Genistein treatment reduced apoptosis by increasing Bcl2 protein expression and decreasing Bax and caspase 3 protein expression. It also reduced the expression of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8) in the SCI area of SCI mice. Flow cytometry analysis indicated that genistein treatment significantly decreased the ratio of M1 macrophages (CD45+/Gr-1-/CD11b+/iNOS+) and increased the ratio of M2 macrophages (CD45+/Gr-1-/CD11b+/Arginase 1+) in the SCI area of SCI mice on the 28^th day after being treated with genistein. We also found that genistein treatment significantly decreased the expression of TLR4, MyD88, and TRAF6 protein in the SCI area of SCI mice on 28^th day after being treated with genistein. Conclusion. Our findings suggested that genistein exerted neuroprotective action by inhibiting neuroinflammation by promoting the activation of M2 macrophages, and its underlying mechanisms might be related to the inhibition of the TLR4-mediated MyD88-dependent signaling pathway.

1. Introduction

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is the most serious complication of spinal injury. It can be divided into two types according to the pathological changes occurring at different periods: acute SCI and chronic SCI [1]. According to epidemiological data, the annual number of new patients with SCI worldwide is 14–40 per 1 million people [2], 27–83 in the United States, 10–30 in Europe [3, 4], and about 600 new patients with SCI per 1 million people in China every year [5]. Drug therapy, surgical treatment, and functional reconstruction after SCI are the main clinical treatment options. The treatment effects on different patients with SCI are inconsistent; hence, many such patients experience neurological dysfunction and disability [6]. As a result, for the clinical treatment of patients with SCI, the development of drugs with demonstrable effects is critical.

SCI is a very complex pathological process, including inflammation, immunity, cell growth and apoptosis, microenvironmental nutritional support, and axon regeneration [7, 8]. The mechanism underlying these injuries can be summarized into two aspects, primary injury (acute SCI), and secondary injury (chronic SCI). Primary injury is the direct damage to neurons and surrounding cells caused by external mechanical force to cause cell necrosis and cell apoptosis [9]; and secondary injury is cell damage caused by inflammation, ischemia, lipid peroxidation, and collagen scar [10, 11]. Among them, inflammation plays a central role in secondary SCI [11]. Secondary injury, in comparison to primary injury, not only reduces the ability of nerve fibers to regenerate themselves but also causes the microenvironment of the injured site to no longer be able to support axon regeneration, making SCI repair more challenging [12].

As an isoflavone compound, genistein has been found to have a variety of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory action [13, 14]. Importantly, genistein was found to inhibit neuroinflammation by inhibiting TLR4-mediated macrophage polarization [15], and reduction in β-amyloid peptide induces inflammatory damage in microglia [16]. The mechanism of secondary injury was found to be related to the immune-inflammatory response induced after acute SCI. Following acute SCI, monocytes/macrophages were found to be recruited to the damaged site to secrete a large number of inflammatory cytokines and to induce apoptosis by decreasing the expression of apoptosis-inhibiting genes which eventually causes secondary SCI [17, 18]. Therefore, it is easy to assume that genistein can attenuate the secondary damage caused by SCI by inhibiting neuroinflammation. Thus, we designed this study to analyze the effect of genistein on SCI and to explore how these effects relate to suppressing neuroinflammation.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Animals and Genistein Administration

C57BL/6 mice (8–10 weeks old, 25–30 g) were used to establish the SCI model as previously described [19]. In brief, we used Allen’s beater to beat the mouse T10 spinal cord vertically (25 mm, 5 g mass) to establish the SCI model. The spastic swinging of the tail, the retraction, and the shaking of both lower limbs and the body of the mouse indicated the success of the SCI model. All mice were randomly divided into four groups: sham group, SCI group, SCI+Gen (20 mg/kg), and SCI+Gen (80 mg/kg). The mice in the sham group were normal, while the other three groups included mice according to the SCI model. In addition, mice in SCI+Gen (20 mg/kg) and SCI+Gen (80 mg/kg) were administered with 20 mg/kg and 80 mg/kg of genistein (Sigma, USA) intraperitoneally, respectively (Figure 1(a)). The protocol of genistein treatment for SCI mice is shown in Figure 1(b). All animal research protocols were approved by the animal ethics committee.

(a)

(b)

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(d)

2.2. Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan Assessment

As previously described [20], we used Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor rating scale to assess the locomotor activity on days 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 following SCI. All the locomotor activity assessments were carried out by two well-trained independent investigators.

2.3. Spinal Cord Water Content Assay

On the 28^th day of SCI model establishment, we anesthetized the mice by intraperitoneal injection of sodium pentobarbital (50 mg/kg) followed by euthanizing the mice by cervical dislocation. We immediately separated the spinal tissues of the mouse and weighed them (M1) and then weighed the spinal tissues again (M2) after being dried at 80°C for 48 h.

The content of spinal cord .

2.4. TUNEL Staining

On the 28^th day of the study, we euthanized the mice and immediately separated their spinal tissues. After paraformaldehyde fixation and paraffin embedding, we prepared 4 μm tissue sections from these tissues. We used the TUNEL assay kit (Abcam, UK) to stain the sections for detecting the TUNEL-positive cells as per manufacturer’s instructions. Leica TCS SP5 microscope (Leica) was used to capture images. We randomly selected three sections from each mouse, and for each section, 5 fields were selected randomly to count the proportion of TUNEL-positive cells.

2.5. Immunoblotting Analysis

We used a tissue total protein extraction kit (Solarbio, China) to extract the total protein in spinal tissues and detected the concentration of total protein using a BCA kit (Solarbio, China). The total proteins were analyzed by 10% SDS-PAGE followed by being transferred to the PVDF membrane. After blocking with 5% skimmed milk for 1 h at room temperature, the primary antibody was added and incubated overnight at 4°C. The PVDF membrane was washed three times with PBS buffer followed by incubation with secondary antibodies for 1 h at room temperature. The protein bands were visualized after adding ECL solution (Solarbio, China). The information about the antibodies used in the present study is shown in Table 1.

2.6. Caspase 3 Activity and Cytokines Content Assay

After obtaining mouse spinal tissues on the 28^th day post-SCI, we added 100 μL lysis buffer into 5–10 mg spinal tissues and homogenized them using a glass homogenizer on an ice bath. The homogenate was transferred to a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube followed by lysis for another 5 min in an ice bath. It was then centrifuged (15000 g, 15 min, 4°C) to collect the supernatant to detect the activity of caspase 3 and the concentration of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8) using an ELISA kit as per manufacturer’s instructions.

2.7. Flow Cytometry Analysis

After obtaining mouse spinal tissues on day 28 post-SCI, we prepared the single-cell suspensions as described previously [19]. The spinal tissues in the form of single cell were stained with antibodies against CD45, CD11b, Gr-1, iNOS, and Arginase 1 for 30 min at 4°C without lighting and finally analyzed using flow cytometry. The information about the antibodies used in the present study is shown in Table 1.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

The data in the present study were recorded and analyzed by SPSS 20.0 software (IBM, USA). The difference between multiple groups was analyzed by a one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s posttest. was considered to be a significant difference.

3. Results

3.1. Genistein Improved Recovery Post-SCI by Reducing Apoptosis

During genistein treatment on SCI mice, we evaluated the locomotor activity of mice using the BBB scale on days 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 following SCI. The results showed that from the 7^th day after SCI, the BBB scores of SCI mice in the genistein treatment group were significantly higher than those of the mice from the SCI group. It was observed that the higher the genistein treatment dose, the higher was the BBB score of the SCI mice (Figure 1(c)). On 28^th day post-SCI, the spinal cord water contents of mice in the SCI group were significantly higher than those of mice in the sham group. Genistein treatment could significantly decrease the spinal cord water contents of SCI mice in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 1(d)). We also found that the apoptosis of cells (TUNEL-positive cells) in the SCI group was also significantly higher than those of mice in the sham group. Genistein treatment could significantly decrease the apoptosis in the SCI area of SCI mice in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 2(a)). The results of the immunoblotting analysis showed that genistein treatment could significantly decrease the elevated Bax protein expression and increase the decreased Bcl2 protein expression in the SCI area of SCI mice (Figure 2(b)). Genistein treatment could significantly decrease the elevated ratio of Bax/Bcl2 relative level (Figure 2(c)) and the activity of caspase 3 (Figure 2(d)).

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(b)

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(d)

Figure 2

Genistein reduced apoptosis in SCI mice. (a) 28 days after Genistein treatment, TUNEL staining was used to determine the apoptosis in the SCI area. (b and c) 28 days after genistein treatment, immunoblotting was used to detect the expression of Bax and Bcl2 protein in the SCI area, and the representative protein bands were showed in (b), and the gray value comparison of protein bands was shown in (c). (d) 28 days after genistein treatment, the activity of caspase 3 in the SCI area was determined using ELISA kit. Five mice in each group, and data were expressed as . value was calculated by post hoc comparisons. , , and vs. SCI group. ## and ### vs. sham group.

3.2. Genistein Reduced Neuroinflammation in SCI Mice

The immune-inflammatory response caused by primary injury of SCI is the core factor that causes secondary injury [11]. We evaluated inflammation as genistein could promote SCI recovery by inhibiting cell apoptosis. The data showed that the contents of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 in the SCI area of SCI mice were significantly higher than those of mice in the sham group (Figure 3). After 28 days of treatment with genistein, the contents of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 in the SCI area of SCI mice were significantly decreased. The higher the therapeutic dose of genistein, the greater the decrease observed in these inflammatory cytokines (Figure 3).

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(b)

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3.3. Genistein Promoted the Activation of M2 Macrophages Post-SCI

After acute SCI, monocytes/macrophages were recruited to the damaged site to secrete a large number of inflammatory cytokines, which induce inflammation and eventually cause secondary SCI [17, 18]. Macrophages are divided into M1 macrophages and M2 macrophages: M1 macrophages secrete inflammatory factors to promote inflammation, while M2 macrophages secrete anti-inflammatory factors to promote tissue repair [21]. We found that the ratio of M1 macrophages (CD45+/Gr-1-/CD11b+/iNOS+) and M2 macrophages (CD45+/Gr-1-/CD11b+/Arginase 1+) in the SCI area of SCI mice was significantly higher than those of mice in sham group (Figure 4(a)). However, after 28-day treatment with genistein, the ratio of M1 macrophages (CD45+/Gr-1-/CD11b+/iNOS+) in the SCI area of SCI mice was significantly decreased (Figure 4(b)), while the M2 macrophages (CD45+/Gr-1-/CD11b+/Arginase 1+) in SCI mice were significantly increased (Figure 4(c)).

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(b)

(c)

Figure 4

Genistein promoted M2 macrophage activation and inhibited M1 macrophage activation in SCI mice. (a–c) The expression of M1 macrophage marker (iNOS) and M2 macrophage marker (Arginase 1) was determined by flow cytometry (a) and comparison of the proportion of M1 and M2 macrophages in the SCI area of different groups of mice on 28^th day after being treated with genistein. Five mice in each group, and data were expressed as . value was calculated by post hoc comparisons. vs. SCI group. ### vs. sham group.

3.4. Genistein Inhibited TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 Pathway in SCI Mice

TLR4-mediated MyD88-dependent signaling pathway was found to play an important role in macrophage polarization [22, 23] and also found to participate in promoting polarization of M2 macrophages post-SCI [24]. Therefore, we assessed the conduction of the TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 pathway and found that the expression of TLR4, MyD88, and TRAF6 in the SCI area of SCI mice was significantly higher than those of mice in the sham group (Figure 5(a)). However, after 28-day treatment with genistein, the expression of TLR4, MyD88, and TRAF6 in the SCI area of SCI mice was all significantly decreased (Figure 5(b)). Thus, genistein treatment could block the conduction of the TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 pathway.

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(b)

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Figure 5

Genistein inhibited TLR4-mediated MyD88-dependent signaling pathway in SCI mice. (a–d) 28 days after genistein treatment, we used immunoblotting to detect the expression of TLR4, MyD88, and TRAF6 protein in the SCI area, and the representative protein bands were showed in (a), and the gray value comparison of protein bands was shown in (b)–(d). Five mice in each group, and data were expressed as . value was calculated by post hoc comparisons. vs. SCI group. # and ### vs. sham group.

4. Discussion

In the present study, the results proved that genistein treatment could significantly improve the recovery of SCI mice by inhibiting neuroinflammation-induced apoptosis. We found that genistein treatment could also significantly decrease the ratio of M1 macrophages and increase the ratio of M2 macrophages in the SCI area of SCI mice. It was identified that TLR4 may be a potential target of genistein, and genistein treatment could significantly decrease the expression of TLR4, MyD88, and TRAF6 protein in the SCI area of SCI mice. Considering the association between the TLR4 pathway and macrophages polarization, the results of our study indicated that genistein exerted neuroprotective function in SCI mice by inhibiting neuroinflammation, which might be related to promoting M2 macrophages polarization by inhibiting TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 pathway.

Genistein is a natural isoflavone compound found in legumes and has been proven to have biological functions such as antitumor, antioxidative stress, antiaging, antiatherosclerosis, and anti-inflammatory [25]. Genistein has been found to play an anti-inflammatory effect in a variety of animal models and cell models. H. Zhang et al. found that genistein inhibits ox-LDL-induced inflammation in HUVECc by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway [26]. It is found to inhibit skeletal muscle inflammation in high-fat diet-fed c57BL/6 mice when combined with metformin [27]. Genistein-loaded nanofibers have been reported to protect spinal cord tissue following experimental injury in rats [28]. However, the effect of direct administration of genistein in the SCI mice was not known. We investigated the effect of genistein in vivo. We found that genistein improved the motor function of SCI mice, reduced spinal edema, and also inhibited apoptosis and neuroinflammation in the SCI area of SCI mice. This suggested that the therapeutic effect of genistein on SCI mice was mediated in part by inhibiting neuronal apoptosis and inflammation. However, its molecular mechanism was unknown.

A large number of inflammatory factors secreted by monocytes/macrophages recruited by acute SCI are the source of secondary injury [12]. Macrophages are extremely heterogeneous plastic cells that play an important role not only under physiological conditions but also during inflammation (initiation and regression). In the early 1990s, two different phenotypes of macrophages were described: one is called classically activated (or inflammatory) macrophages (M1), and the other is called surrogate activated (or wound healing) macrophages (M2) [29, 30]. Macrophages are differentiated into the M1 phenotype by Th1 cytokines and pathogen-related molecular patterns, and macrophages with this phenotype produce a Th1 proinflammatory response [31]. On the other hand, IL-4/IL-13 stimulates the differentiation of alternately activated macrophages (M2), and M2 macrophages contributed to inflammation resolution and wound healing by producing angiogenic mediators such as transforming growth factor-β, vascular endothelial growth factor, and epidermal growth factor [32]. Therefore, promoting polarization of M2 macrophages helps the recovery of SCI mice by inhibiting inflammation.

In the present study, we found that genistein treatment significantly decreased the ratio of M1 macrophages (CD45+/Gr-1-/CD11b+/iNOS+) and increased the ratio of M2 macrophages (CD45+/Gr-1-/CD11b+/Arginase 1+) in the SCI area of SCI mice on 28^th day after treatment with genistein. In the previous studies, genistein has demonstrated the function of promoting the polarization of M2 macrophages, such as in the isoflurane-induced neuroinflammation model [15] and β-amyloid peptide-induced inflammatory damage model [16]. Jiang et al. found that genistein treatment significantly promoted M2 macrophages polarization in the isoflurane-induced neuroinflammation mice model by inhibiting the TLR4-mediated pathway [15], which pointed out that genistein can promote M2 macrophages polarization in SCI mice through TLR4-mediated pathway.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are one of the important pattern recognition receptors in the body. They are characterized by the ability to recognize external pathogens and other structures. After being stimulated by external pathogens, TLRs can activate the signal pathways in the body (such as MAPK and NF-κB) to produce inflammatory cytokines and finally constitute the body’s first barrier against pathogen invasion [33, 34]. TLRs mainly reach the surface of macrophages and dendritic cells. There are 13 types of TLRs identified in humans and mammals, of which TLR4 is considered to be the most important receptor that regulates the polarization of macrophages [35, 36]. We found that genistein treatment significantly decreases the expression of TLR4, MyD88, and TRAF6 protein in the SCI area of SCI mice, which suggested that genistein promoted polarization of macrophages in SCI mice by inhibiting TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 pathway.

In conclusion, to the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to prove that genistein promotes the recovery of SCI mice by inhibiting nerve apoptosis and neuroinflammation. The mechanism might be related to genistein’s promotion of M2 macrophage activation by inhibiting the TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 signaling pathway. This study investigated the antiapoptosis and anti-neuroinflammation of genistein in the SCI model and did not investigate other mechanisms related to SCI recovery, such as spinal cord axon regeneration and antioxidative stress. But the data in the present study were sufficient to show that genistein is a potential drug for the treatment of SCI.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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