Pharmaceutical Pollution: Azole Antifungal Drugs and Resistance of Opportunistic Pathogenic Yeasts in Wastewater and Environmental Water

Table 1

Classes of antifungal drugs, their modes of action, and target cells in pathogenic yeasts.

Antifungal agents	Specific examples	Mode of action	Target cells	References
Azoles	Clotrimazole; Ketoconazole; Miconazole	Inhibit the activity of cytochrome P450-dependent 14-α-sterol demethylase	Cell membrane	[18–20]
Polyenes	Nystatin; Amphotericin B; Natamycin	Inhibit the activity of cytochrome P450-dependent 14-α-sterol demethylase	Cell membrane	[17, 20, 21]
Echinocandins	Caprofungin; Micafungin; Anidulafungin	Inhibit the synthesis of β-D-glucan synthase	Cell wall	[18, 20]
Nucleoside analogs	Flucytosine	Interfere with DNA and RNA synthesis	Nucleus	[20, 22]