Negative Effect of Soil Compaction and Investigation of Its Relation with Soil Physiochemical Properties in Mechanization Farming System

Seifu Woldeyohannis, Yared

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/5654283

Applied and Environmental Soil Science

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Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion Conclusions Data Availability Conflicts of Interest References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2024 | Article ID 5654283 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/5654283

Negative Effect of Soil Compaction and Investigation of Its Relation with Soil Physiochemical Properties in Mechanization Farming System

Yared Seifu Woldeyohannis¹

Academic Editor: Wafaa M. Abd El Rahim

Received07 Aug 2023

Revised02 May 2024

Accepted08 May 2024

Published24 May 2024

Abstract

The primary source of soil compaction is weight bearing down on the soil, which occurs frequently on agricultural land due to foot movement, livestock tramples, or the heavy weight of farm equipment. The primary cause of significant soil compaction is the driving of heavy machinery over moist soils. In this paper, the negative side of soil compaction and its influence on soil physical and chemical characteristics at the Awash Melkassa farm field located in Ethiopia were investigated. Compaction of soil test was taken at three different depths which are 10 cm, 20 cm, and 30 cm with the help of a hydraulically operated cone penetrometer integrated into the tractor. The three depths were expanded into 15 sample locations (designated as point A to point O) to collect 35 data points on soil compaction using a hydraulic-powered Spot-on digital soil cone penetrometer across a 0.6-hectare farmland area. A correlation analysis was conducted on the 15 sample points (A to O) to assess soil compaction in the field. In addition, soil samples were collected from specific farm locations at depths ranging from 0 to 10 cm, 10–20 cm, and 20–30 cm for subsequent physical and chemical tests in the laboratory. During the harvesting season, sample location A exhibited the highest soil compaction values, reaching 6,159 kPa, while the lowest values were observed at sample point F, measuring 327 kPa. For the seeding season, the sample point B showed the highest soil compaction values at 6,052 kPa, while the lowest values were recorded at sample point K, measuring 563 kPa. Moreover, the data indicates a consistent increase in soil compaction with depth during both experimental seasons. The laboratory test for soil texture revealed that the soil composition was classified as a clay loam, consisting of 36.7% sand, 30.3% clay, and 33% silt. The moisture content ranged from a high of 16.04% to a low of 13.97%. In addition, it was observed that total organic carbon, organic matter, and total nitrogen levels tend to rise with increased soil compaction, and conversely, decrease as soil compaction decreases. This study’s insights are invaluable for agricultural mechanization. Given the substantial weight of farm machinery, comprehending soil properties and their correlation with compaction rates is imperative for optimizing farming practices.

1. Introduction

In the vast expanses of farmland, a hidden battle is being fought against soil compaction. As farm machinery grows heavier due to advancements in agricultural technology, concerns about soil health and productivity are on the rise [1]. These machines, from initial soil preparation to final harvesting, leave their imprint on the land they cultivate [2]. Each pass of these mechanical giants increases soil density as the weight they bear compresses farm soil [3]. The interaction between soil and machinery is a delicate dance, with research highlighting the detrimental impact of heavy machinery on soil health and crop yields [4].

Yet, in developing countries, where traditional farming practices and animal traction are prevalent, the story unfolds differently. Here, farmers’ choices regarding tillage methods and crop rotations have a profound effect on soil health and agricultural productivity [5]. Despite the complexities involved, one truth remains constant: the physical properties of the soil ultimately determine its ability to support life and nourish crops [6]. Despite the challenges it faces, the soil remains resilient, silently guarding the earth [7].

Soil compaction in agricultural fields has traditionally been assessed using hand-operated soil cone penetrometers in previous studies [8–10]. The soil cone index, commonly used in tillage research, helps characterize soil physical qualities and assess its strength. While compaction is crucial for maintaining optimal root conditions in adverse weather, it also hampers aeration, water penetration, and increases runoff [11]. Cone index values vary depending on soil depth, texture, density, and moisture content, with studies showing higher values correlating with increased clay, sand, and silt content in farmland [12].

Soil physical characteristics encompass water movement, air circulation, dissolved compound mobility, as well as factors influencing germination, root growth, and erosion [13]. Key factors affecting soil compaction include soil texture, salinity (pH), organic matter content (SOM), total nitrogen content (STN), electrical conductivity (SEC), organic content (SOC), and cation exchange capacity (SCEC) [14]. Soil moisture content is assessed through various methods, including electrical devices with radioactive elements [15]. Typically, soil moisture content is determined by the weight ratio of moist soil to dry soil within a specific mass of soil [16]. Research on Prosopis-growing farmland reveals that Prosopis planting significantly elevates soil pH and exchangeable sodium percentage [17]. Mihretie et al., 2021, conducted a three-year study to explore the effects of tillage practices, specifically row planting versus broadcast planting methods, on soil physiochemical properties [18].

Recent advancements in agricultural mechanization have led to an increase in soil particle density, resulting in challenges for air and water circulation [18]. Traditionally, soil compaction has been measured using manual-operated cone penetrometers, which are time-consuming, as noted in previous studies. However, some researchers have adopted mechanically pushed soil cone penetrometers to expedite this process [19]. Addressing the gaps identified in past studies, this research paper examines various soil physical and chemical properties including moisture content, pH level, clay, silt, and sand percentages, as well as SEC, SCEC, SOC, SOM, and STN that influence soil compaction in the study area.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Study Area

The research took place at Melkassa Agricultural Research Center, situated near Awash Melkassa town at coordinates 8.40 N Latitude and 39.40 E Longitude, approximately 107 kilometers from Addis Ababa [20]. This region boasts an altitude of 1550 meters above sea level, with an average yearly rainfall of 826.2 millimetres, placing it in the semi-arid climatic category. The typical monthly high and low temperatures were recorded at 28.6 degrees Celsius and 13.8 degrees Celsius, respectively. The primary soil types prevalent in this area are loam and clay loam. Furrow irrigation serves as the predominant irrigation method, drawing water from the Awash River [21]. This area depicted in Figure 1 using ArcGIS, spans 6000 m² and has been conventionally tilled for over 25 years.

2.2. Soil Compaction Measurement

On a 0.6-hectare experimental farmland, the experiment included fifteen replications and three treatments. Penetration resistance was measured at three depths in 10-mm increments (10 cm, 20 cm, and 30 cm) using a tractor-integrated cone penetrometer method. The tractor-integrated soil compaction measurement, utilizing the cone penetrometer method, involved conducting 35 measurements in the experimental fields, as depicted in Figure 2.

The hydraulic cylinder system was linked to the limit switch cell through a voltage excitation circuit. The limit switch cell received power from the tractor’s battery via an inverter, while the excitation circuit was powered by an external 24 V battery. Before conducting field experiments, pressure and flow rate were manually adjusted. The direction control valve lever was manipulated to move the penetrometer forward, with the limit switch regulating depth. Following data collection, the lever and limit switch were reversed to retract the piston to its original position.

2.3. Soil Physical and Chemical Property Measurement

Oil samples were gathered from different depth intervals (0–10 cm, 10–20 cm, and 20–30 cm) for laboratory analysis of physiochemical characteristics. The soil’s physical properties, such as texture and moisture content, were evaluated. Furthermore, soil chemical attributes including pH value, electrical conductivity (SEC), soil cation exchange capacity (SCEC), soil organic matter (SOM), soil total nitrogen (STN), and soil organic carbon (SOC) were determined through laboratory analyses. Various techniques exist for measuring soil moisture, ranging from manual assessment through touch to employing advanced electrical instruments and even radioactive materials [15]. In this study, the “Oven Dry method” was utilized to assess soil moisture content. This method involved several steps, including weighing the container (W1), sampling and weighing the soil (W2), drying the soil in a hot air oven, recording the final weight (W3), and calculating the moisture content using the following equation:

The sand, silt, and clay content of the soil were determined using various sieves, and a hydrometer was employed to measure the settling rate of particles in a water-based solution [22].

The soil’s pH, which indicates its acidity or alkalinity in water, was measured using a tabletop pH meter (HI 2210). The chemical properties of the test soil were assessed using established techniques. The soil’s electrical conductivity was gauged using a JENWAY 4310 Conductivity Meter. Total organic carbon and total organic matter were determined following Walkley and Black’s method, involving chromic acid wet digestion and measuring gravimetric weight change due to high-temperature oxidation of organic matter, respectively. The available total nitrogen content was determined using the alkaline permanganate method. The soil’s cation exchange capacity (CEC) was assessed using the NCR-13 Standard, a measure that reflects the soil’s ability to attract, retain, and exchange cation elements, expressed as meq/100 g of soil. Soil compaction parameters and their causes and effects are depicted in the flowchart in Figure 3 [21].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Soil Composition

The results of the soil compaction test conducted on the experimental farm field are illustrated in Figure 4, encompassing all sample points labelled from A to O across both experimental seasons. In the harvesting season, sample location A displayed the highest soil compaction values, reaching 6,159 kPa, whereas the lowest values were noted at sample point F, measuring 327 kPa. Conversely, during the seeding season, sample points B exhibited the highest soil compaction values at 6,052 kPa, with the lowest values observed at sample point K, measuring 563 kPa, as depicted in Figure 4. Furthermore, the data shows a consistent trend of increasing soil compaction with depth during both experimental seasons, aligning with prior research that supports this finding [23–25]. As the depth increase the stability nature of the soil is high which results highly dense. But the top or fertile region of the soil is always unstable due to the agricultural activities like primary tillage and secondary tillage operation.

Soil penetration is the resistance encountered when a tool or probe is pushed into the soil. It is often used as an indicator of soil compaction, which can impact root growth, water infiltration, and overall soil health. The fact that soil penetration resistance increases with depth suggests that deeper layers of soil may be more compacted than surface layers. This can have negative consequences for plant root development and water movement through the soil profile.

The correlation examination conducted on soil compaction across various sample points, labelled A to O, within the experimental farm field showcases a diverse array of relationships. Some correlations exhibit positive associations, indicating that as one variable increases, the other also tends to increase. Conversely, there are negative correlations where an increase in one variable corresponds to a decrease in the other. These findings are presented in detail in Table 1.

In the field test, sample points L and E, as well as L and H, demonstrate a robust positive correlation at a significance level of 0.01. Moreover, sample points O and B, N, and G, O, and M display a strong positive correlation at the 0.05 significance level. These results indicate notable relationships between soil compaction levels at these specific locations. Overall, the study highlights significant variations in soil compaction within the examined field [21].

3.2. Physiochemical Properties of Soil

The findings from the laboratory tests assessing soil physical and chemical properties are condensed and presented in Table 2.

The Soil Cation Exchange Capacity (SCEC) reflects the soil’s capability to retain nutrients such as , H, Ca, Mg, K, and Na [26, 27]. The average SCEC test result from the samples was 23.16 meq/100 g soil, falling within the agrotechnical requirement range of 10 to 40 meq/100 g soil. The moisture content, averaging at 14.79%, also aligns with standard values. Soil texture analysis identified clay loam soil, with 33% silt, 30.3% clay, and 36.7% sand content [28]. Higher SCEC levels suggest increased clay content, enhancing water retention, and organic matter presence in the soil [21, 29].

Figures 5–7 illustrate the soil physiochemical properties influencing soil compaction. In Figure 5(a), it is observed that soil moisture content increases with depth. On the other hand, the increase in moisture content with depth is a common phenomenon in many soil profiles. This is due to factors such as gravity, capillary action, and the presence of clay minerals, which can hold onto water more tightly. As you move deeper into the soil profile, moisture tends to accumulate, especially in soils with good water retention properties. This aligns with the study’s objective, demonstrating the impact of soil moisture content on compaction, as shown in Figures 4 and 5(b). High water content in farm soils increases their susceptibility to compaction. The combination of increased soil compaction and moisture content with depth underscores the complexity of soil behaviour and the need for tailored soil management practices. For instance, in agriculture, strategies such as deep tillage or subsoiling may be employed to alleviate soil compaction in deeper layers, thereby improving root penetration and water movement. Additionally, proper irrigation and drainage practices must be implemented to ensure adequate water availability to plant roots while preventing waterlogging in lower soil layers. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for sustainable land use and crop production, as it allows farmers and land managers to make informed decisions regarding soil preparation, irrigation scheduling, and overall soil health maintenance. Ongoing research and monitoring of soil properties across different depths are essential for optimizing agricultural productivity and environmental stewardship. Both soil penetration resistance and moisture content increase with depth, corroborating findings from previous studies [30, 31]. These results are consistent with the observations of other researchers as well [21, 32]. The moisture content ranges from 13.97% to 16.04%, indicating variability within the samples.

(a)

(b)

In Figure 5(b), it is evident that the percentages of silt and sand decrease with depth until reaching 20 cm, while the clay percentage increases consistently across the entire depth range of the experiment. Beyond 20 cm, the percentages of sand and clay begin to decline, whereas the silt percentage starts to rise again. This study investigates the influence of soil texture on soil compaction. The results indicate that clay soil exerts a significant impact on compaction, showing a positively linear relationship with soil compaction. A higher clay content implies greater soil cation exchange capacity (SCEC) and organic matter in the soil, increasing the likelihood of soil compaction [29]. Soil fertility diminishes as pH decreases due to nitrogen acidification in the soil and nitrate leaching in agricultural practices [33]. The lower the soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil, the faster the soil pH declines over time. Figure 6 illustrates an increase in soil . Both soil electrical conductivity (SEC) and soil cation exchange capacity (SCEC) exhibit a positive relationship with soil compaction and depth throughout the experiment, as depicted in Figures 4 and 6.

However, beyond a depth of 20 cm, soil pH decreases, a finding supported by previous studies [30, 34].

Agricultural soils rely significantly on soil organic matter, constituting only 2–10% of most soil masses. Alterations in soil organic carbon concentration impact the soil’s physical characteristics. An increase in soil organic carbon promotes macroaggregation, reducing the risk of soil compaction and enhancing water retention. Aggregates form through the amalgamation of soil particles with binding agents generated by organic components [35]. Alongside organic residues, elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium, and magnesium are also present in trace amounts within soil organic matter [36].

In the experimental farmland, this study revealed a positive correlation between soil organic carbon (SOC), soil organic matter (SOM), and soil total nitrogen (STN) with soil compaction and depth in the upper soil layers, up to a depth of 20 cm, as depicted in Figures 4 and 7. However, beyond a depth of 20 cm, SOC, SOM, and STN show a decline, as illustrated in Figure 7. These findings are consistent with existing literature, which also indicates that SOC, SOM, and STN tend to increase with soil compaction and depth in the fertile soil layers, while decreasing in less fertile soil depths [37].

4. Conclusions

Soil compaction tests were done at three depths using a hydraulic-powered Spot-on digital soil cone penetrometer. Laboratory analysis included assessing soil texture, moisture content, pH, SEC, SCEC, SOM, STN, and SOC. During the harvesting season, sample location A exhibited the highest soil compaction values, reaching 6,159 kPa, while the lowest values were observed at sample point F, measuring 327 kPa. In contrast, during the seeding season, sample points B showed the highest soil compaction values at 6,052 kPa, while the lowest values were recorded at sample point K, measuring 563 kPa. Moreover, the data indicates a consistent increase in soil compaction with depth during both experimental seasons. The SCEC test yielded an average of 23.16 meq/100 g soil, while the moisture content measured an average of 14.79%. The soil texture was classified as clay loam, with individual proportions of 33% silt, 30.3% clay, and 36.7% sand. Both soil compaction and moisture content increased with depth, with the highest and lowest moisture values recorded at 13.97% and 16.04%, respectively. Clay soil exhibited a significant impact on compaction due to its higher clay content, indicating increased soil cation exchange capacity (SCEC) and organic matter. SEC and SCEC displayed a positive relationship with soil compaction and depth throughout the experiment. Furthermore, the study demonstrated a positive association between soil organic carbon (SOC), soil organic matter (SOM), and soil total nitrogen (STN) with soil compaction and depth up to 20 cm, after which SOC, SOM, and STN began to decline.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they no conflicts of interest.

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Copyright © 2024 Yared Seifu Woldeyohannis. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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