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Helminth species | Name | Molecule | Mechanisms of immune modulation during infection | Reference |
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Echinococcus granulosus | AgB | Antigen B | Reduces expression of costimulatory molecules on human DCs and induces Th2 | [17] |
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Fasciola hepatica | FheCL1 | Cysteine protease | Prevents release of macrophage inflammatory mediators by degrading TLR3 | [18] |
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Schistosoma mansoni | Lyso-PS | Lyso-phosphatidylserine | Lyso-PS treated DCs induce IL-10+ Treg through TLR2 and promote Th2 polarization | [19, 20] |
DsRNA | Double-stranded RNA | Triggers TLR3 to activate STAT1 and induces expression of type 1 IFNs in DCs | [21, 22] |
Omega-1 | Ribonuclease | Reduces expression of costimulatory molecules and IL-12 in DCs and induces IL-4 and Foxp3 in CD4+ cells | [23–25] |
IPSE/alpha-1 | Glycoprotein | Induces IgE-dependent IL-4 production from basophils in vivo | [26] |
SmCKBP | Chemokine-binding protein | Suppresses neutrophil recruitment by inhibiting the mammalian chemokine CXCL8 | [27] |
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Ascaris suum | PAS-1 | 200 kDa protein | Suppresses proinflammatory cytokines and neutrophil influx after exposure to LPS | [28] |
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Necator americanus | Na-ASP-2 | High homology to C-C chemokines | Secreted by infective larvae, recruits neutrophils in vitro and in vivo | [29] |
Na-NES | Metalloprotease | Cleaves the eosinophil chemoattractant CCL11 and prevents its action in vitro and in vivo | [30] |
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Nippostrongylus brasiliensis | Acetylhydrolase | Acetylhydrolase | Inactivates mammalian platelet-activating factor, thus potentially regulating GI inflammation | [31] |
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Trichinella spiralis | Ts-MIF | MIF homologue | Inhibits migration of human PBMCs, similar to human MIF | [32] |
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Trichuris muris | 43 kDa IFN-γ homologue | IFN-γ homologue | Binds to IFN-γ receptor in mice | [33] |
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Acanthocheilonema viteae | AvCystatin /Av17 | Cysteine protease inhibitor | Downregulates T cell responses. Interferes with macrophage MAP kinase signaling pathways to induce IL-10 | [34, 35] |
ES-62 | Phosphorylcholine-containing glycoprotein | Reduces CD4+ T cell proliferation and IL-2 production, inhibits IL-4 and IL-13 production Inhibits IL-12 production from macrophages after exposure to LPS in a TLR4-dependent manner Induces an anti-inflammatory phenotype in DCs | [36–39] |
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Brugia malayi | Bm-ALT-1, Bm-ALT-2 | Abundant larval transcript proteins | Expression of Bm-ALT in recombinant Leishmania mexicana parasites diminishes IFN-γ-mediated killing and induces GATA-3 and SOCS-1 in these macrophages | [40] |
Bm-CPI-2 | Cysteine protease inhibitor | Blocks antigen presentation via MHC class II by interfering with asparaginyl endopeptidase | [41, 42] |
Bm-TGH-2 | Homologue of TGF-β | Binds to mammalian TGF-β receptors thus potentially influencing Treg differentiation | [43] |
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Litomosoides sigmodontis | Ls-cystatin | Cysteine protease inhibitor | Reduces antigen-specific proliferation of spleen cells | [44] |
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Onchocerca volvulus | Onchocystatin | Cysteine protease inhibitor | Suppresses antigen-specific proliferation of PBMCs, induces IL-10 from stimulated PBMCs Reduces expression of MHC class II molecules and CD86 on human monocytes | [45, 46] |
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