To identify factors associated with mortality in children under 5 years of age
Bangladesh DHS 2004, 2007, and 2011 (combine) ( live births)
Working status of mother; working (,, value < 0.001), maternal highest level of education; secondary or more with Ref to no education (,; value < 0.001), previous death of siblings; yes (,; value < 0.001), no. of children under age 5 at home; 3 and above (,, value < 0.001), TT vaccination at pregnancy; one TT with Ref to never (,, 0.96; value = 0.023), 2 and more TT (,, value < 0.001), delivery complications; any complications with Ref to none (,, value = 0.001), contraceptive use; yes (,, value < 0.001), Mother’s age at child birth; 30-39 with Ref to <20 (,, value = 0.046), birth rank and birth interval; 2nd/3rd birth rank, years interval with Ref to 2nd/3rd birth rank, years interval (,, value < 0.001), 4th birth rank, years interval (,, value < 0.001), birth place and mode of delivery; home with Ref to health facilities without caesarean (,, value = 0.002)
To describe the burden, trend, and associated factors of under-five mortality rate
Zambia DHS 2007, 2013-14, and 2018 (combine) ( live births)
Maternal age; 20-24 with Ref to 15-19 years (, value < 0.05), 25-29 years (, value < 0.01), 30-34 years (, value < 0.05), wealth index; poorer with Ref to richest (, value < 0.05), place of residence; rural with Ref to urban (, value < 0.001), ANC visits; no ANC as compared to had at least one ANC visits (, value < 0.001), birth type; multiple birth with Ref single (, value < 0.001), size of child at birth; below average with Ref to average (, value < 0.001), child sex; male with Ref to female (, value < 0.001), regions; eastern with Ref to central (, value < 0.01) Luapula (, value < 0.01) Muchinga (, value < 0.01)
Indirect demographic method and Bayesian spatial model
Country-wide (Ghana)
To estimate the under-five child mortality and its social and environmental risk factors
110 districts (10% random sample of Ghana’s 2000 and 2010 National Population and Housing Census), and indirect demographic methods and Bayesian spatial model was used to estimate under-five mortality
Use of LPG in household for cooking (,) associated with lower under-five mortality.
Distance to fetch water; 31-60 min. with Ref to on the premises (,) more than 60 min. (,), source of drinking water; tap water with Ref to unprotected water (,), cooking fuel; electricity/gas with Ref to straw/animal dung (,), type of toilet; no toilet facility with Ref to toilet with flush/pit latrine (,), other toilet type (,), type of floor; cement with Ref to wood (,), earth/sand/dung (,), type of roof; corrugated iron/metal with Ref to thatch/leaf/mud (,), mat/plastic sheet/wood (,), type of wall; cane/trunk/bamboo with Ref to wood planks/shingles (,), smoking habit; no (,), region, place of residence; rural (,), working status of mother; no (,), sex of child; female (,).
To investigate the effect of multiple risk factors for childhood mortality
Nouna DSS, (children born alive between Jan 1, 1998, and Dec 31, 2001, and mortality follow-up to five years) (n =8,986 live births)
Sex of child; male (, value = 0.04), ethnic group; Peulh with Ref to Bwaba (, value = 0.03), religion; natural/other with Ref to Muslim (, value = 0.02), type of birth; twin with Ref to single (, value < 0.01), age of mother at birth; young (<18 years) with Ref to middle (18-34) (, value < 0.01), distance to next health center; >10 km (, value < 0.01).
To examine the effects of risk factors on under-five mortality
Burkina Faso DHS-2010 ( live births)
Preceding birth interval; 18-23 with Ref to <18 months (,, value = 0.011), 24-29 (,, value < 0.001), 30-35 (,, value < 0.001), 36-41 (,, value < 0.001), 42-47 (,, value < 0.001), 48-53 (,, value < 0.001), breastfeeding; never breastfeed with Ref to ever (,, value < 0.001), type of birth; twin with Ref to single (,, value < 0.001), birth order; 2 with Ref to 1 (,, value = 0.009), 3 with Ref to 1 (,, value = 0.026), size at birth; (,, value = 0.001); region ( values < 0.05)
To compare the influence of geographical location and key maternal factors on under-five deaths
Kenya DHS 2008-2009 ( live births)
Place of residence; rural (,, value < 0.05), age of mother; 32 with Ref to 15-20 years (,, value < 0.01), birth order; 2-3 with Ref to 1 (,, value < 0.05), 4 (,, value < 0.05), wealth index; middle with Ref to low (,, value < 0.05), highest (,, value < 0.05), province/region ( value for ), duration of breastfeeding; >12 months with Ref to <6 months (,, value < 0.05)
To identify the factors associated with under-five mortality
Nigeria DHS 2003, 2008 and 2013 ( live births, combined sample)
Birth order and birth interval; 1st child with Ref to 2nd or 3rd child, (, value < 0.001), 2nd or 3rd child, (, value < 0.001), 4th or higher, (, value < 0.001), household wealth index; middle with Ref to rich (, value = 0.001), poor (, value = 0.001), mother’s education; no education with Ref to secondary or higher (, value = 0.032), place of residence; rural (, value = 0.001), sex of child; male (, value < 0.001), mode of delivery; caesarean with Ref to noncaesarean (, value = 0.001), size of child at birth; small or very small with Ref to average or large (, value < 0.001), mother’s age; less than 20 with Ref to 30-39 (, value = 0.004), 40-49 (, value < 0.001)
Two-part random-effects regression model (negative binomial hurdle model)
Country-wide (Ethiopia)
To identify the potential risk factors for child mortality
Ethiopian DHS 2016 ( live births)
Child vaccination; yes (,), family size; (,), age of mother; (,), ANC visit; 1-3 with Ref to no (,), 4 or above (,), previous birth interval; 25-36 months with Ref to 4 months (,), 37 and above (,), use of contraceptive; yes (,), father’s education; secondary and above with Ref to no education (,), mother’s education; primary with Ref to no education (,), father’s occupation; had working with Ref to no (,), place of delivery; private sector with Ref to home (,), type of births; multiple with Ref to single (,), age of mother at first birth; 17 and above with Ref to 16 (,), birth order; 1-3 with Ref to first (,), 4 and above (,), religion; Muslim with Ref to orthodox (,), between enumeration area (level 2) (,)
To identify the factors associated with under-five child mortality
Nepal DHS (2001-2016) ( live births)
Previous dead child; yes (,, value < 0.001), tetanus toxoids (TT) vaccination during pregnancy; one TT with Ref to two or more TT (,, value 0.013), no TT (,, value < 0.001), contraceptives use; no (,, value < 0.001), ethnicity; Madhesi with Ref to Brahmin/Chhetri (,, value < 0.001), mother’s literacy level; cannot read with Ref to can read (,, value = 0.031), mother’s occupation; agriculture with Ref to not working (,, value = 0.018), skilled/professional (,, value < 0.001), mother’s age; 20-29 with Ref to 40-49 years (,,p value = 0.003), < 20 (,, value < 0.001), birth rank and birth interval; 1st child with Ref to 2nd/3rd birth rank, >2 years (,, value < 0.001), 4th/higher birth rank, (,, value < 0.001), 4th/higher birth rank, (,, value = 0.015)
Open cohort population-based longitudinal surveillance design
Multilevel logistic regression
KHDSS, eastern Ethiopia
To assess under-five mortality focusing on the trends and associated factors based on 2008-2016 data in KHDSS
KHDSS in Kersa district, East Hararghe Zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia ( live births)
ANC visits; yes (,), education of mother; elementary with Ref to no-education (,), birth weight; normal with Ref to low (,), big (,), window presence in the house; yes (,), occupation of mother; employed (,), family size; two and/or less with Ref to more than 5 (,), 3-4 (,)
To identify the effect of risk factors for childhood mortality
DSS and DHS (1998-1999) of Burkina Faso ( for DSS, for DHS live births)
Birth order; first with Ref to 2-4 (,, value = 0.02), multiple birth (,, value < 0.01), family size; 7-10 with Ref to 6 (,, value < 0.01), >11 (,, value < 0.01), religion; Catholic with Ref to Muslim (,, value = 0.03), traditional (,, value < 0.01)
Logistic regression model using frequentist and Bayesian framework
Country-wide (Ghana)
To identify the risk factors of child mortality
Ghana DHS 2014 ( live births)
Mode of delivery; caesarean section with Ref to not caesarean section (,, value < 0.05), size of child at birth; average with Ref to small (,, value < 0.05), large (,, value < 0.05), mother’s education; formal education with Ref to no formal education (,, value < 0.05)
Logistic regression and multivariate Bayesian geo-additive survival analysis
Country-wide (DR of Congo)
To examine province-level geographic variation in under-five mortality and accounting risk factors of under-five mortality
Congo DHS 2007 ( live births)
Preceding birth interval; <24 months with Ref to 24 months (,), place of delivery; home with Ref to hospital (,), marital status of mother; single with Ref to married (,)
Maternal age; 26-30 with Ref to 0 years (,, value 0.001), 31-35 (,, value = 0.001), >35 (,, value = 0.001), maternal age at first marriage; 20-24 with Ref to <15 years (,, value = 0.001), 25 (,, value = 0.001), use of contraception; traditional with Ref to no method (,, value = 0.017), health seeking behavior; average with Ref to low (,, value = 0.001), preceding birth interval; 18-36 with Ref to <18 months (,, value = 0.001), >36 (,, value = 0.001), breastfeeding; >18 with Ref to <6 months (,, value = 0.001), birth order; 2, 3, or 4 with Ref to 1 (,, value = 0.001), birth weight; small with Ref to normal (,, value = 0.004), family size; >5 with Ref to 1-5 (,, value = 0.001), type of toilet; bad toilet with Ref to good toilet (,, value = 0.001), fuel source; kerosene with Ref to gas (,, value = 0.001), others (,, value = 0.001), no. of wives; more wives with Ref to one (,, value = 0.001), type of residence; rural (,, value = 0.002)
To determine the factors associated with under-five child mortality
Lesotho DHS -2009 ( live births)
Sex of child; female (,, value = 0.016), type of births; multiple (,, value = 0.046), breastfeeding duration; 13-18 with Ref to 0-12 months (,, value < 0.001), 19 and above (,, value < 0.001), source of energy; other with Ref to electricity; (,, value = 0.005), marital status; formerly married with Ref to married (,, value < 0.001)
To examine the effect of socioeconomic status and type of residence on under-five mortality
Pakistan DHS 2017/18 ( live births)
Mother’s education; educated (,, value < 0.001), mother’s employment; working (,, value < 0.10), birth spacing; 2-3 with Ref to <2 years (,, value < 0.001), >3 years (,, value < 0.001), mother’s age at first birth; 18 years (,, value < 0.001), birth size; average with Ref to small (,, value < 0.001)
To point out crucial risk factors of under-five mortality
Sierra Leone DHS 2013 ( live births)
Age of mother at first birth; >18 with Ref to 18 years (,, value < 0.001), sex of child; female (,, value < 0.001), number of children in the house; 3-4 child with Ref to 1-2 child (,, value < 0.001), 5 and above (,, value < 0.001), birth interval; >3 years with Ref to <2 years (,, value < 0.05), size of child at birth; smaller than average with Ref to very small (,, value < 0.001), average or larger (,, value < 0.001)
To investigate the trends and determinants of neonatal, postneonatal, infant, child, and under-five mortalities in Tanzania from 2004 to 2016
Tanzanian DHS 2004-2005, 2010, 2015-2016 ( live births, combine of three Tanzanian DHS)
Type of residence; rural (,), mother’s education; primary with Ref to secondary or higher (,), birth rank and birth interval; first child with Ref to 2 or 3 child, (,), 2 or 3 child, (,), 4 or more child, (,), sex of child; male (,), size of child at birth; small or very small with Ref to average or larger (,)
To examine the effect of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of women to under-five child mortality
Primary data ( live births)
Education of mother (, value = 0.019), main occupation of mother (, value = 0.005), ethnic group (, value = 0.091), average monthly income of mother (, value = 0.064)
Type of birth; twin (CDHS 2010: ,), birth interval; 2-3 years with Ref to <2 years (CDHS 2010: ,; CDHS 2014: ,), more than 3 years (CDHS 2010: ,; CDHS 2014: ,), age of mother at child birth; more than 40 years with Ref to <20 years (CDHS 2010: ,; CDHS 2014: ,), mother’s education; primary with Ref to no education (CDHS 2010: ,), secondary or higher (CDHS 2010: ,; CDHS 2014: ,), place of residence; rural CDHS 2014: ,), region; plain with Ref to Phnom Penh (CDHS 2010: ,), ANC visit; have ANC (CDHS 2010: ,; CDHS 2014: ,), TT vaccination; received >2 dose with Ref to not received at last birth (CDHS 2010: ,), child vaccination status; not fully immunized with Ref to fully immunized (CDHS 2010: ,; CDHS 2014: ,)
Multicountry analysis (five sub-Saharan African countries-Chad, Demographic Republic (DR) of Congo, Mali, Niger, and Zimbabwe)
To examine the maternal factors associated with under-five mortality
DHS data from five sub-Saharan Africa countries ( live births)
Age of mother at first birth; (Mali: ,, value < 0.05; Zimbabwe: ,, value < 0.05), place of residence; rural (Chad: ,; DR Congo: ,; Mali: ,; Niger: ,; Zimbabwe: ,, value < 0.05), education of mother; secondary with Ref to no formal (Zimbabwe: ,, value < 0.05; higher: ,, value < 0.05), wealth index; richer with Ref to poorest (DR Congo: ,, value < 0.05), richest (DR Congo: ,; Niger: ,, value < 0.05), marital status; not currently married with Ref to currently married/in union (DR Congo: ,; Mali: 2.43, ; Niger: ,; Zimbabwe: ,, value < 0.05), type of birth; multiple (Niger: ,; Zimbabwe: ,, value < 0.05), mode of delivery; caesarean section (Chad: ,; DR Congo: ,; Mali: ,; Niger: ,; Zimbabwe: ,; value < 0.05), size of child; small with Ref to large (DR Congo: ,; Niger: ,, value < 0.05), birth order; 5 and above (Chad: ,; DR Congo: 0.44, , value < 0.05), birth interval; 18-24 with Ref to <18 (DR Congo: ,), >24 (Chad: ,; DR Congo: ,, value < 0.05)
