Infrastructure as a Complex Adaptive System

Table 2

Properties of general systems and complex adaptive systems [10, 12, 16].

General Systems Theory	Complex Adaptive Systems Theory
Key Properties	Key Properties	Property Category	Hierarchical Level
Complicated	Complex	Emergent behaviour and self-organisation	System level
Aggregable with functional decomposition	Emergent with limited functional decomposition
Centralised control	Distributed control
Determinate and Linear	Non-determinate and Non-linear	Instability and robustness
Static	Perpetual Dynamics	Dynamics and evolution	Network level
Equilibrium	A Far-from-equilibrium State
Closed	Open
Reversible	Irreversible
Rational, deductive behaviour	Adaptive, evolutionary behaviour	Adaptiveness	Agent level
Simplified assumptions and homogenous agents	Diversity among agents and more realistic assumptions	Agent diversity