E-Government Effect on Participatory Democracy in the Maghreb: Indirect Effect and Government-Led Participation

Table 1

Research constructs.

Variables	Items	Source
E-government quality	Efficiency	Papadomichelaki and Mentzas [55]
	Government websites’ structure is clear and easy to follow.
	(2) Government websites are well customized to individual users’ needs.
	(3) The information displayed in government websites is appropriately detailed.
	(4) The information displayed in this e-government site is fresh.
	(5) Information about field’s completion in this e-government site is enough.
	Privacy and security
	(6) Acquisition of username and password in government websites is secure.
	(7) Only necessary personal data are provided for authentication on this e-government site.
	(8) Data provided by users in government websites are archived securely.
	(9) Data provided in government websites are used only for the reason submitted.
	Reliability
	(10) Government websites are available and accessible whenever you need them.
	(11) Government websites provide services in time.
	(12) Government websites never witness technical problems.
	(13) Forms in this government websites are downloaded in short time.
	(14) This e-government site performs the service successfully upon first request.
	Citizen support
	(15) Employees are responsive and show a sincere interest in solving users’ problem and inquiries.
	(16) Employees have the adequate knowledge to answer users’ questions.
	(17) Local governments have set up contact centres to communicate with citizens.
	(18) Employees have the ability to convey trust and confidence.
	E-democracy
	(19) Government websites provide information about and communication with elected officials.
	(20) E-government allows direct access to official government notices and records.	Scott [56]
	(21) E-comment forms are available on e-government websites and social media.
	(22) Links to other local civic organizations are available and indexed on governmental websites.
	(23) Online issue chat rooms or discussion forums are available.
Participatory democracy	Electoral democracy	Adopting V-Dem participatory survey of Fuchs et al. [57]
	(24) Rulers are responsive to citizens.
	(25) Political and civil society organizations can operate freely.
	(26) Elections are clean and not marred by fraud or systematic irregularities.
	(27) People choose their leaders in free elections.
	(28) Electoral competition for the electorate’s approval under circumstances when suffrage is extensive.
	(29) Elections affect the composition of the chief executive of the country.
	(30) In between elections, there is freedom of expression and an independent media capable of presenting alternative views on matters of political relevance.
	Nonelectoral
	(31) Legislative candidate selection within the parties is not centralized.
	(32) Women are encouraged to participate in civil society organizations (CSOs).
	(33) Women have the same rights as men.
	(34) People are involved in civil society organizations (CSOs).
	(35) People can change the laws in referendums.
Corruption control	Perceptions
	(36) There is need corruption in my country.	Adapted from Charron et al. [58]
	(37) There is greed corruptionin my country.
	(38) Elections are clean from corruption.
	(39) Law enforcement faces difficulties due to administrative corruption or interference of people from higher authorities.
	Experiences
	(40) I am frequently asked to pay a bribe for a public service.
	(41) I am frequently obliged to pay a bribe for a public service.
	(42) I frequently hear my acquaintances complaining about the corruption in public administration.
Transparency	(43) Governments’ online services have been more transparent.	Kim et al. [59]
	(44) Public employees’ engagement in corruption has been reduced.
	(45) Government websites have provided the citizens with greater opportunities to participate in the rulemaking process.
	(46) E-government has provided the citizens with an equal opportunity to participate in the rulemaking process.
Government’s accountability	(47) The government supports the process of learning from mistakes and successes and consider external views for improvement.	Said et al. [60]
	(48) The government has a regular reporting system on the achievements and results of programs or projects against objectives.
	(49) The government recognizes the responsibilities of the organization toward its community, society, and the environment.
	(50) The government follows treasury rules and regulations in all circumstances.
	(51) The government ensures proper usage of funds in an authorized manner.
	(52) The government provides higher responsibility to employees to become highly efficient and effective.