Ethnomedicinal Knowledge of Plants Used in Nonconventional Medicine in the Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of the Congo)

Table 1

Botanical characteristics and previous knowledge of the plants inventoried.

Taxon	FCR (n = 326)	Family	Local name	Ethnicity	A.U.	A.D.
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench^X	0.61	Malvaceae	Dongodongo	Lingala	Fr [11]	In vivo rat: 100–200 mg/kg [12]
Acalypha paniculata Miq.^W	1.23	Euphorbiaceae	Kabobo	Bemba	Nr	Nr
Aframomum melegueta K.Schum^W	2.15	Zingiberaceae	Mundongo	Lingala	Tb	In vivo rat: 150–400 mg/kg [13]
					Lv	In vivo rat: 200–400 mg/kg [14]
Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W. Wight^W	1.23	Fabaceae	Mulu	Kongo	Lv [15]	In vivo guinea pig: 500 mg/kg [16]
Alchornea cordifolia (Schumach. and Thonn.) Müll. Arg.^Y	0.92	Euphorbiaceae	Mambunzila	Kongo	Lv [17]	In vivo rat: 200–600 mg/kg [18]
Aloe succotrina Weston^V	1.53	Asphodelaceae	Langa	Ngwaka	Lv [19]	In vivo rat: 100–200 mg/kg [20]
Anacardium occidentale L.^X	0.92	Anacardiaceae	Nkasu	Kongo	Ro [21]	In vitro: 12.5 µg/mL [22]
					Lv [23]	In vivo rat: 100 mg/kg [24]
					Sb	In vivo rat: 200 mg/kg [25]
Annona senegalensis Pers.^W	3.07	Annonaceae	Kilolo	Kongo	Lv [8]	In vivo rat: 100–200 mg/kg [26]
Antidesma venosum E. Mey. ex Tul.^Y	1.53	Phyllanthaceae	Misengo	Kongo	Sb [15, 27]	Nr
Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd.^X	1.53	Asteraceae	Lengana	Bemba	Ap [28]	In vivo rat: 500–1000 mg/kg [29]
Asparagus racemosus Willd.^Y	1.23	Asparagaceae	Lutwa	Mbala	Wp [30]	In vitro amylase model [31]
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.^V	0.61	Meliaceae	Marumaru	Shi	Sd [8]	In vivo rat: 500 mg/kg [32]
					Ro	In vivo rat:100–800 mg/kg [33]
Baphia capparidifolia Baker^X	5.52	Fabaceae	Mumbwo	Ngbandi	Nr	Nr
Bidens pilosa L.^Z	5.52	Asteraceae	Kokoyalimo	Lokele	Wp [15]	In vivo rat: 250 mg/kg [34]
Boerhavia diffusa L.^Y	2.45	Nyctaginaceae	Ndemba	Ngwaka	L [35]	In vivo rat: 500 mg/kg [36]
					Ro	In vivo rat: 50–300 mg/kg [37]
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.^W	3.68	Brassicaceae	Nkofi	Kongo	Sd [38]	In vivo rat: 250–450 mg/kg [39]
						In vivo mice: 100 mg/kg [40]
					Lv	In vitro and in vivo rat: 500 mg/kg [41]
Bridelia ferruginea Benth.^Z	3.37	Phyllanthaceae	Kimwindu kinseke	Kongo	Rb [42]	In vivo rat: 50 mg/kg [43]
					Lv	In vivo rat: 200–800 mg/kg [44]
Brillantaisia owariensis P. Beauv.^Y	1.23	Acanthaceae	Lembalemba	Lingala	Nr [45]	In vivo rat: 500–2,000 mg/kg [46].
Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth^Z	5.52	Fabaceae	Ngoliolio	Ngwaka	Lv [35]	In vivo rat: 400–600 mg/kg [47]
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don^V	1.23	Apocynaceae	Fulele	Ngwaka	Tb [48]	In vivo rat: 37.5–150 mg/kg [49]
Chromolaena corymbosa (Aubl.) R. M. King and H. Rob.^X	6.44	Asteraceae	Mpala kasakula	Kongo	Nr	Nr
Citrus × aurantium L.^W	1.84	Rutaceae	Nlala	Kongo	Fr [15]	In vivo rat: 200–300 mg/kg [50]
Costus lucanusianus J. Braun and K. Schum.^Y	3.37	Costaceae	Ngo nkini	Kongo	Lv	In vivo rat: 100–200 mg/kg [51]
Costus phyllocephalus K. Schum.^Z	1.23	Costaceae	Mafulungu	Kongo	Lv [52]	Nr
Crinum ornatum (Aiton) Herb.^Z	1.84	Amaryllidaceae	Munselebende	Kongo	Nr [38]	Nr
Crossopteryx febrifuga (Afzel. ex G. Don) Benth.^W	4.91	Rubiaceae	Mvala	Kongo	Sb [15]	In vivo rat: 500–1500 mg/kg [53]
Crotalaria medicaginea Lam.^Z	1.84	Fabaceae	Nkeka zango	Yanzi	Nr	Nr
Cymbopogon citratus (D. C.) Stapf^W	4.60	Poaceae	Sinda	Lingala	Wp [8]	In vivo rat: 2500–5000 mg/kg [54]
Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax^X	5.83	Dioscoreaceae	Ngamba	Kongo	Bb [55]	In vivo rat: 100 mg/kg [56]
Diospyros heudelotii Hiern^W	3.68	Ebenaceae	Lufwa lundomba	Kongo	Ro [52]	Nr
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.)^x	9.51	Amaranthaceae	Kulamoka	Yaka	Lv [7]	In vivo rat: 100–400 mg/kg [57]
Erythrina abyssinica Lam.^w	1.23	Fabaceae	Kikumbu	Kongo	Rb [8]	In vivo guinea pig: 500 mg/kg [16]
Ficus benghalensis L.^Y	1.53	Moraceae	Nsanda	Suku	Sb [8]	In vitro: AC 50 = 84.44 ± 1.65 μg/mL [58]
Ficus exasperata Vahl^Y	1.23	Moraceae	Kikuya	Kongo	Lv [38]	In vivo rat: 150 mg/kg [59]
Garcinia kola Heckel^V	18.40	Clusiaceae	Ngadiadia	Kongo	Sd [60]	In vivo rat: 200–800 mg/kg [61]
Gladiolus gregarius Welw. ex Baker^W	0.61	Iridaceae	Litungulu ya Zamba	Lingala	Bb [15]	Nr
Gymnanthemum amygdalinum (Delile) Sch. Bip.^V	3.07	Asteraceae	Mukari kari	Kongo	Lv [62]	In vitro-α-glucosidase: IC50 47.29 ± 1.12 µg/mL [63]
Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Synonym)
Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir.^Y	2.45	Hypericaceae	Ntumu	Mbala	Lv [15]	In vivo rat: 500 mg/kg [64]
Heinsia crinita (Wennberg) G. Taylor^Z	2.76	Rubiaceae Juss.	Iyaku	Mongo	Lv [65]	In vivo rat: 400 mg/kg [66]
Hymenocardia acida Tul.^X	4.29	Phyllanthaceae	Kigeti	Kongo	Lv [15]	F: in vivo rat: 250–1000 mg/kg [67]
Lantana camara L.^W	0.61	Verbenaceae	Ngbanyamando	Ngwaka	Lv [15]	In vivo rat: 200–400 mg/kg [68]
					Fr	In vivo rat: 50–2000 mg/kg [69]
Lippia multiflora Moldenke^Y	1.23	Verbenaceae	Bulukutu	Kongo	Lv [52]	Nr
Marsdenia latifolia (Benth.) K. Schum.^W	0.92	Apocynaceae	Lolango	Kongo	Nr [70]	In vivo rat: [71]
Gongronema latifolium Benth. (Synonym)
Millettia drastica Welw. ex Baker^W	0.92	Fabaceae	Mwengzti	Kongo	Ro [52]	Nr
Mitragyna stipulosa (DC.) Kuntze^W	1.23	Rubiaceae	Liluku	Lingala	Nr [72]	Nr
Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal^Y	2.45	Annonaceae	Mpei	Kongo	Sd [73]	In vivo rat: 50–200 mg/kg [74]
Morinda lucida Benth.^Y	1.23	Rubiaceae	Nkisi	Kongo	Lv [8]	In vitro-α-glucosidase: [75]
					Sb	In vivo rat: 125–500 mg/kg [76]
Musanga cecropioides R. Br. ex Tedlie^W	1.23	Urticaceae	Nsanga	Kongo	Lv [52]	In vivo rat: 10–40 mg/kg [77]
					Sb	In vitro α-glucosidase [78]
Nauclea latifolia Sm.^Y	1.53	Rubiaceae	Kilolo	Kongo	Lv [79]	In vivo rat: 100–200 mg/kg [80]
Ocimum gratissimum L.^Y	1.23	Lamiaceae	Dinsusu-nsusu	Kongo	Lv [81]	In vitro α-glucosidase [78]
Palisota schweinfurthii C. B. Clarke^X	8.28	Commelinaceae Mirb	Mabongubongu	Yanzi	Lv [52]	Nr
					Wp [52]	Nr
Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth.^X	1.84	Fabaceae	Mutunzama	Kongo	Sb [45]	In vivo rat: 200–400 mg/kg [82]
Persea americana Mill.^X	30.67	Lauraceae	Savoka	Yanzi	Lv [83]	In vivo rat: 100 mg/kg [84]
					Fr	In vitro α-glucosidase [85]
Phaseolus vulgaris L.^W	1.53	Fabaceae	Madesu	Lingala	Sd [86]	In vivo rat: 1–5 mg/kg [87]
Phyllanthus niruri L.^Y	2.45	Phyllanthaceae	Kahungahunga	Luba-kas	Ro [88]	In vivo rat: 200–400 mg/kg [89]
					Ap	In vitro α-glucosidase: [90]
Piliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst.^X	17.79	Fabaceae	Falabuta	Suku	Lv [91]	In vivo rat: 250–1000 mg/kg [92]
Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.)^Y	1.53	Fabaceae	Tshifumbe	Luba-kas	Sb [15]	In vivo rat: 500 mg/kg [93]
Piper guineense Schumach. and Thonn.^W	0.61	Piperaceae	Kapinde	Kongo	Lv [52]	In vivo rat: 40–100 mg/kg [94]
Platymitra arborea (Blanco) P. J. A. Kessler^Y	2.45	Annonaceae	Mpei	Kongo	Nr	Nr
Psidium guajava L.^W	0.61	Myrtaceae	Mapela	Lingala	Lv [79]	In vivo rat: 40–100 mg/kg [94]
Quassia amara L.^X	0.61	Simaroubaceae	Mupesipesi	Luba-kat	Lv, T, Ro [95]	In vivo rat: 200–500 mg/kg [96]
Rauvolfia mannii Stapf^X	0.92	Apocynaceae	Kilungu	Kongo	Nr	Nr
Schwenckia americana L.^Y	2.45	Solanaceae	Lunzilanzila	Kongo	Wp [45]	In vivo rat: 600 mg/kg [97]
Senna alata (L.) Roxb.^X	30.67	Fabaceae	Mbwabwa	Kongo	Lv [98]	In vivo rat: 500–500 mg/kg [99]
					Fr [100]	in vivo: 250–500 mg/kg [101]
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link^V	2.15	Fabaceae	Ntsambi ntsambi	Kongo	Lv [102]	In vivo rat: supplement at doses of 12.5%, 25%, and 50% [103]
					Ro	In vivo rat: 400 mg/kg [104]
Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex Krauss^Y	1.53	Myrtaceae	Mugorhe	Shi	Lv [105]	In vivo rat: 3–50 mg/kg [106]
Tephrosia vogelii Hook. f.^X	7.98	Fabaceae	Uleku	Kongo	Nr [52]	Nr
Terminalia mollis M. A. Lawson^Y	2.45	Combretaceae	Mboumbou	Luba-kas	Lv [15]	Nr
					Ro [15]	Nr
Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi and Galasso^X	17.79	Fabaceae	Munga	Luba-kat	Lv [15]	In vitro α-glucosidase: 25 μg/mL [107]
Acacia karroo Hayne (Synonym)
Voacanga africana Stapf^W	0.61	Apocynaceae	Kondiankondia	Yaka	Lv [79]	In silico [108]
Ziziphus mucronata Willd.^W	1.23	Rhamnaceae	Sula	Hemba	Lv	In vitro α-glucosidase: 1 mg/mL, A: 70% [109]
					Sb	In vitro α-glucosidase: 62.5 µg/mL, A: 20% [110]
					Ro [111]	Rat: 150–300 mg/kg [112]

A_.U.: antidiabetic use, A_.D.: previous antidiabetic activity, F_RC: relative frequency of citation in percentage, Bb: bulb, Rb: root bark, Sb: stem bark, Lv: leaves, Fr: fruits, Sd: seeds, and Ap: aerial parts.