Relationship between Prolactin, Chronic Kidney Disease, and Cardiovascular Risk

Table 1

Main causes of hyperprolactinemia.

Causes of hyperprolactinemia	Examples
Physiological	Pregnancy
	Breastfeeding
	Stress
	Physical activity
	Breast stimulation
Pharmacological (main drugs)	Risperidone, quetiapine, olanzapine, haloperidol, loxapine, clomipramine, amitriptyline, fluoxetine, citalopram, paroxetine, phenytoin, metoclopramide, domperidone, ranitidine, methyldopa, verapamil, labetalol, morphine, cocaine, sibutramine
Diseases of the selar region	Lactotrophic adenomas (prolactinomas)
	Hypothalamic tumors
	Sarcoidosis, histiocytosis
Endocrine systemic diseases	Hypothyroidism
	Adrenal insufficiency
Nonendocrine systemic diseases	Chronic kidney disease
	Hepatical cirrhosis