Multimode Consecutively Connected Piston-Type Cylindrical Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Rotational Energy Harvesting and Sensing Application

Paranjape, Mandar Vasant; Graham, Sontyana Adonijah; Patnam, Harishkumarreddy; Manchi, Punnarao; Yu, Jae Su

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1495217

International Journal of Energy Research

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Abstract Introduction Results and Discussion Conclusion Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Acknowledgments Supplementary Materials References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2023 | Article ID 1495217 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1495217

Multimode Consecutively Connected Piston-Type Cylindrical Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Rotational Energy Harvesting and Sensing Application

Mandar Vasant Paranjape,¹Sontyana Adonijah Graham,¹Harishkumarreddy Patnam,¹Punnarao Manchi,¹and Jae Su Yu¹

Academic Editor: Sathish K. Kamaraj

Received04 Oct 2022

Revised23 Nov 2022

Accepted04 May 2023

Published31 May 2023

Abstract

A 3D-printed multicoupled piston-type cylindrical triboelectric nanogenerator (MPC-TENG) that utilizes contact-separation and lateral-sliding operational modes to harvest rotational motion and convert it into electricity was proposed. The electrical performances of the fabricated four similar piston-type cylindrical TENGs (PC-TENGs) were systematically investigated. TENGs in general produce electricity in an alternating-signal form which may not be used to directly power electronic devices. Therefore, all the individual PC-TENGs were connected with a simple external filter circuit to obtain direct current (DC) electrical output, and further, they were parallelly connected to increase the overall electrical output from the MPC-TENG. The MPC-TENG consists of four PC-TENGs and produces a DC electrical output of ~40 V and ~12.5 μA at 380 rpm. Furthermore, the MPC-TENG was attached to wind cups to harvest wind energy and a Pilton wheel to harvest hydrokinetic energy, respectively. The harvested energy was stored in energy storage devices to power various small-scale electronic gadgets. Furthermore, a real-time self-sustaining alarm combined with the MPC-TENG was demonstrated to detect unauthorized human/wild animal entry into a protected region. This work also shows that the DC electrical signals from the proposed MPC-TENG can be further increased by combining more PC-TENG devices.

1. Introduction

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) are considered a cost-effective ubiquitous mechanical energy harvesting technology, which can be used to harvest green energy resources and convert them into electricity [1, 2]. Generally, TENGs operate in four different working mechanism modes to harvest mechanical energy and convert it into electricity using a fundamental phenomenon of contact electrification and electrostatic induction [3, 4]. TENGs have promising capabilities such as low cost, high efficiency, and easy fabrication [5–7]. Moreover, the power generated from TENG at lower frequencies is higher than conventional electromagnetic generators [8, 9]. Meanwhile, certain properties like high output impedance and low electrical output restrict the applicability of TENG as an energy source in real-life applications [10]. Until now, different approaches were utilized by several researchers to overcome these problems and enhance the overall electrical output of TENG [11–13]. The contact-separation (CS) and lateral-sliding (LS) modes are the most commonly used operational modes of TENG. The CS mode TENG produces a promising electrical output in a lower frequency range, whereas the one in LS mode produces an excellent electrical output at higher frequencies. Combining the TENGs in CS and LS modes could enhance the overall electrical output from the TENG over a wide range of operational frequencies [14]. However, there are a limited number of reports demonstrating the combined CS and LS mechanisms in a single TENG. Researchers also tried to combine multiple TENG devices to enhance the electrical output and to develop application-oriented TENG devices [15, 16]. The alternating current (AC) produced by TENG also limits its applicability in the world of direct current (DC) input-based electronics. Using a simple external electronic circuit, it is possible to convert AC electrical signals into DC signals efficiently [2].

Considering the above-mentioned issues, herein, we proposed a 3D-printed multicoupled piston-type cylindrical TENG (MPC-TENG) that can harvest rotational motion into electricity. The MPC-TENG structure includes base structure, rotational axle, movable arm, connector, and four similar piston-type cylindrical TENG (PC-TENG) devices. The PC-TENG holds both the CS and LS operational modes that enhance its overall electrical output. The external rotational motion is converted into a linear motion using a rotational axle and movable arm. As a result, the inner cylinder moves back and forth inside the outer cylinder to produce electricity. Symmetry in the rotational axle structure counterbalances the weight of the cylinders, hence requiring less amount of torque to perform rotational motion and also providing mechanical stability. The electrical output produced by each PC-TENG over constant rotational motion was analyzed. Additionally, all the PC-TENG devices were coupled through parallel connections with a suitable external circuit to enhance the overall electrical output. The enhancement in electrical output produced by the MPC-TENG was systematically investigated by increasing the number of PC-TENG devices under different rotational frequencies. Moreover, AC electrical signals produced by MPC-TENG are converted into DC electrical signals to improve its affinity in various energy applications. The long-term stability in electrical output as well as the electrical output from the TENG across different load resistances was studied. Furthermore, the electricity produced from the MPC-TENG was utilized to store and power commercially available small-scale electronics. The wind energy harvesting employing the wind cups attached to MPC-TENG under various wind speeds was demonstrated successfully. The real-time application of the MPC-TENG was tested in a self-powered security/alarm system to detect unauthorized entry into a protected region. This self-powered sensing system can be applied in any remote region where there is no electricity. The MPC-TENG can also function using the hydrokinetic energy of flowing water. Therefore, a Pelton wheel was attached to the MPC-TENG to harvest hydrokinetic energy and convert it into electricity. Effective energy harvesting with MPC-TENG is beneficial to harvesting any rotational motion applied from mechanical movements, wind energy, hydrokinetic energy, etc.

2. Experimental Details

2.1. Materials

The commercially available aluminum (Al) and polytetrafuloroethylene (PTFE) tapes were used for the fabrication of the MPC-TENG. To 3D-print the MPC-TENG device structure, the required acronytrile butadiene styrene (ABS) filament was employed from the CUBICON Co. Ltd.

2.2. Material Characterization and Instrumentation

The electronic images of the thin films were obtained by using the available field-emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) (LEO SUPRA 55, Carl Zeiss). Autodesk 3ds Max software was used to design the MPC-TENG structure and further fabricated by the tabletop 3D printer (CUBICON) available in the laboratory. The rotational motion to the MPC-TENG was applied with the help of the DC induction motor (K9IP200FH, GGM CO., LTD). The rotation motion of the DC motor was controlled by the fully digital inverter (MX3000A, GR Electronics. Co., Ltd.). The output voltage of the MPC-TENG was observed by using a digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO4104, Tektronix, input impedance 40 MΩ). The current and the charge density were measured with the help of an electrometer (Keithley 6514).

2.3. Fabrication of MPC-TENG

The several parts of MPC-TENG were fabricated from ABS filament material by a facile 3D printing technique. The fabricated parts include rotational axle, movable arm, base structure, inner movable cylinder, outer hollow cylinder, and connector. All the parts were suitably assembled to form an MPC-TENG structure as shown in Figure 1(a). The two Al tapes with a size of cm² were pasted approximately 1 cm apart on the inner cylinder to work as a positive triboelectric material as well as the metal electrode. Meanwhile, the PTFE-attached Al stacks with a size of cm² were pasted inside both of the half parts of an outer hollow cylinder, as shown in Figures 1(b) and 1(c). The outer cylinder was attached to the base and remained in stationary form permanently. In contrast, the inner cylinder was designed similarly to that of a piston to move in and out of the outer cylinder easily. The rotational axle of MPC-TENG is suspended on the two end pillars and connected to the external DC motor through the connector to apply rotational motions. The ball bearings were inserted at the contact point between the rotational axle and the end pillars. The applied rotational motion moves the rotational axle completely, and the movable arms start back and forth motion in the vertical direction. The attached inner cylinder moves in and out of the outer cylinder for one complete rotation.

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3. Results and Discussion

Figure 1(a)-i schematically illustrates the fabrication of MPC-TENG via a 3D printing technique. The MPC-TENG consists of various components such as base structure, rotational axle, movable arm, connector, and PC-TENG devices. Various harvesters based on wind, mechanical movements, and water flow could be attached to the MPC-TENG connector to harvest rotational energy. The photographic image of the fabricated MPC-TENG device attached to wind cups is shown in Figure 1(a)-ii. The MPC-TENG is composed of four similar PC-TENG devices attached to the base structure at a finite distance. The PC-TENG device is made of PTFE as a negative triboelectric material, Al as a positive triboelectric material, and electrode. The FE-SEM images in Figure 1(a)-iii and iv show the surface morphology of Al and PTFE. Figures 1(b) and 1(c) show the schematic illustration and the photographic image of the 3D-printed PC-TENG used in the fabrication of MPC-TENG. The PC-TENG consists of two individual parts, namely the outer stationary cylinder and the inner movable cylinder. The hollow structure in the outer stationary structure enables the inner cylinder to move freely in and out of it. The triboelectric materials were stuck vertically to the inner walls of the stationary cylinder and the outer walls of the movable cylinder for friction to take place between the two films, respectively. Furthermore, the triboelectric materials were also stuck on the bottom side of the PC-TENG as shown in Figure 1(c). The triboelectric films on the vertical wall of the inner and outer cylinders work in the LS operational mode of the TENG, whereas the ones attached to the base of the inner and outer cylinders work in CS mode (Figure 1(c)). The inset of Figure 1(c) shows the photographic images of the complete PC-TENG device while the inner cylinder is partially and completely inside the outer hollow cylinder. During an external rotational motion, the rotational axle rotates to move the inner cylinder in and out of the outer hollow cylinder. This allows the vertical and horizontal triboelectric materials to contact and separate to produce charges, as shown in Figure 1(d).

The energy harvesting mechanism of the MPC-TENG relies on the CS and LS operational modes simultaneously. Therefore, the working mechanism and the potential distribution created during both the working modes of the TENG were investigated using COMSOL Multiphysics simulation software. Figure 2(a) shows the schematic illustration of the complete CS working cycle of TENG with four different conditions. The energy conversion from any TENG is based on the fundamental phenomenon of contact electrification and electrostatic induction between two differently charged triboelectric materials [17, 18]. In an initial state, there is no external force resulting in the separation of triboelectric layers at a finite distance. When the external mechanical force is applied, the triboelectric layers come close to each other, as shown in Figure 2(a)-i. The applied force on the active materials causes an overall deformation, resulting in charge generation and accumulation in them. Thereafter, equal amounts of negative and positive charges travel to the surface of the respective active layers due to contact electrification [19]. In the complete contact state, there is a charged equilibrium in both the triboelectric layers, leading to zero electrical output from the TENG. As shown in Figure 2(a)-ii, when the applied force on the TENG is removed, both the active layers with equal and opposite charges start to separate from each other. In the separation state, an electric potential is developed across the positive and negative triboelectric materials. Owing to the developed electrical potential, electrons start to flow from the positive triboelectric electrode to the electrode attached to negative triboelectric material across an external circuit. When the triboelectric material layers are completely separated, the TENG reaches an electric potential equilibrium with no flow of charges, as shown in Figure 2(a)-iii. When an external force is once again applied to the TENG, both the triboelectric materials approach each other with the flow of charges in the reverse direction (Figure 2(a)-iv). The change in the developed potential across the TENG along with the charge transfer process is visualized by the COMSOL simulation. The TENG model was constructed with three material layers, namely, Al, PTFE, and Al in order, with cm² dimensions. The thicknesses of the Al and PTFE layers were kept at 90 and 100 μm, respectively. The dielectric constants of the Al and PTFE films were kept at 1.8 and 2.02, respectively. It is well known that the potential developed across the TENG is a function of the distance between the active material layers [20]. Therefore, the TENG model was simulated in four different conditions by varying the distance between the active layers from 0 to 1 mm, and the developed potential was observed. As explained above, the maximum potential across the TENG was observed when both the triboelectric materials were separating and approaching. In contrast, the developed potential was at its minimum when both triboelectric materials were in full contact and separated states. Figure 2(b) shows the schematic representation of the TENG working mechanism in LS mode operation. However, the LS mode working mechanism of the TENG is similar to its CS mode operation. When the inner cylinder moves up and down through the outer hollow cylinder, the two active triboelectric materials slide over each other. In this case, the force is applied in a parallel direction to the TENG, and the distance between the active material layers is almost equal to zero. The spontaneous charge generation occurs due to the frictional motion between the two active materials over one another, resulting in the conversion of applied force into electricity [21]. To realize the electrical potential developed across the LS mode TENG under contact, separating, separated, and approaching conditions, the TENG model was also studied using COMSOL simulation. The TENG model was designed similar to the CS mode TENG with the upper active materials sliding in a horizontal direction instead of a vertical direction. Similar to the CS mode, the maximum electric potential can also be observed when the LS mode TENG is in separating and approaching states. The results obtained from the simulation for TENG in different stages are shown below the respective schematic representation in Figure 2(b)-i–iv. Using the above-mentioned working mechanism of CS and LS modes, the PC-TENG converts the mechanical momentum into electricity.

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To investigate the electrical performance of MPC-TENG as well as PC-TENG, the whole MPC-TENG structure was driven by the external DC motor, and the complete assembly is shown in Figure S1 of the Supporting Information (SI). The external motor provides the rotational motion to the PC-TENG/MPC-TENG at preferred rotations per minute (rpm) to investigate the electrical output of the TENG. Inside each PC-TENG, two separate pairs of triboelectric materials function in CS and LS modes at the same time to produce an electrical output. The electrical output produced by the triboelectric pairs of the PC-TENG working in CS and LS modes is shown in Figures S2a and b of the SI. Multiple PC-TENGs were fabricated with the same dimensions and named C1, C2, C3, and C4, respectively. To investigate the uniform electrical performance of the PC-TENGs, each PC-TENG was tested at a constant rotation speed of 100 rpm. As a result, the inner cylinder of the PC-TENG moves in and out of the outer cylinder 100 times in a minute, thus producing the electrical output. Figures 3(a)–3(c) show the comparison of the output voltage, current, and charge density of individual PC-TENG devices. The electrical output performance of each PC-TENG was uniform with ~23 V, ~1.9 μA, and ~5 μC m^-2. Therefore, the similar electrical output from each PC-TENG device revealed the consistency in the fabricated devices. In general, the electrical output produced by the TENG is in AC signals, whereas most electronic gadgets are driven by DC signals. Hence, it is very important to convert the electrical output produced by the TENG into DC signals [22]. Therefore, the individual PC-TENGs were connected to a bridge rectifier that converts the AC signals from the PC-TENG into the DC signals, as shown in Figures 3(d) and 3(e). Although the electrical output from the TENG is in DC, since the signal is in a pulse form, powering the electronic gadgets would be challenging. Thus, a capacitor of 0.1 μF was used as a filter which had a capacitive reactance value of 0.95 MΩ [23, 24]. The complete electrical circuit consisting of PC-TENG, rectifier circuit, and filter capacitor is shown in Figure 3(f). In MPC-TENG, the contact and separation processes in both CS and LS modes of TENG do not occur at the same time. The movement of the inner cylinder inside the outer cylinder is shown in Figure S3 of the SI. From Figure S3a-i of the SI, it is observed that when the LS TENG is in an approaching state, the separation distance in the CS TENG is too long. The CS TENG is in an approaching state when the LS TENG is almost in a contact state, as shown in Figure S3a-ii of the SI. During separation, the CS TENG first reaches a separated state compared to the LS TENG, as shown in Figure S3a-iii of the SI. Therefore, the interference in the electrical output signal from the CS and LS mode TENGs cannot be observed. The electrical waveform from the single cylinder is shown in Figures S3b and c of the SI, describing the electrical output from the CS TENG and the combined (CS + LS) TENG, respectively. The electrical output of the CS TENGs showed a single peak, whereas the density of the peak or area of the peak of the combined TENG was increased. The DC electrical output from the CS and LS mode TENGs is shown in Figure S3c of the SI. The CS and LS mode TENGs are initially connected in parallel connection and attached with an external full-wave bridge rectifier/capacitor to obtain DC signals. All the electrical connections are shown in the circuit diagram in Figure S3d of the SI. The electrical output from the PC-TENG with successive addition of each CS and LS mode TENG is shown in Figure S3d of the SI. This indicates that the electrical output from the PC-TENG is enhanced with the addition of CS/LS mode TENG. The separation distance between the two triboelectric materials was optimized based on the length of the rotational axle. The length of the rotational axle is varied from 4 to 7 cm, as shown in Figures S4a, b of the SI. The corresponding electrical output from the single cylinder of the MPC-TENG is shown in Figure S4c of the SI. It was observed that the electrical output from the PC-TENG increased with an increase in the length of the rotational axle. However, increasing length of the rotational axle above 7 cm destabilizes the PC-TENG. Therefore, the rotational axle with 7 cm length was considered the optimized axle and utilized in further analysis.

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The filtered electrical output from each PC-TENG is analyzed as shown in Figures 3(g) and 3(h). It was observed that the output voltage was stepped down due to the difference in the capacitive reactance of the capacitor and the high output impedance from the TENG. Meanwhile, the current at the end of the filter circuit remains almost the same owing to the low capacitance, resulting in a resistance-free charge transfer [23, 25]. As we know, the electrical output produced by a single TENG device is comparatively low. Therefore, researchers are more focused on combining multiple TENGs, since this is also one of the effective methods to enhance the overall electrical output. The different TENG devices operated in synchronous motion can be easily combined to enhance the electrical output [26–28]. On the other hand, combining the TENG devices with asynchronous motion is challenging, as the output electrical signals at different phases limit the overall electrical output enhancement. In the MPC-TENG, the two PC-TENGs move in an upward direction, whereas at the same time, the two PC-TENGs move in a downward direction, as shown in Figure S5a of the SI. Herein, the attached capacitor circuit not only filters the electrical noise but also increases the magnitude of the electrical output signals [24]. The electrical output produced by the two PC-TENGs moving in upward and downward directions is individually shown in Figure S5b of the SI. Figure S5b of the SI also shows the electrical output from the MPC-TENG after combining all four PC-TENGs. It was observed that the electrical performance of the MPC-TENG was enhanced after adding all the PC-TENGs. Therefore, the four different PC-TENGs were connected in parallel along with the attached external circuit, as shown in Figure 3(i).

To analyze the enhancement in the electrical output produced from the MPC-TENG, the electrical output was observed by adding the PC-TENG sequentially into the circuit. Figures 4(a) and 4(b) show the output voltage and current of the MPC-TENG while adding each PC-TENG. At 100 rpm, the electrical output from the MPC-TENG kept increasing from ~2.7 V and ~1.75 μA to ~8 V and ~3.75 μA, as the number of PC-TENG increased from 1 to 4. The electrical performance of the nanogenerator is strongly dependent on the operational frequency [20, 29, 30]. Thus, a change in the output electrical performance of the MPC-TENG was observed for the variation in operational rotation speed. The rotation speed of the external DC motor varied from 60 to 380 rpm with an interval of 20 rpm by using an rpm controller attached to it. The output DC voltage and current of the MPC-TENG are shown in Figures 4(c) and 4(d). The output voltage and current of the device increased consistently from ~2.5 V and ~1.5 μA to ~40 V and ~12.5 μA with increasing the rotation speed. It is observed that when the applied rotation speed increased above 340 rpm, the electrical output from the MPC-TENG got saturated. The maximum relative displacement between the PTFE and Al results in a saturation of the electrical performance in MPC-TENG [31]. The electrical output from the MPC-TENG was further studied across a range of load resistances varying from 100 Ω to 1 GΩ at 180 rpm. It was observable that the voltage from the MPC-TENG increased with increasing load resistance, whereas the current decreased as shown in Figure S6a of the SI. The power density of the device was calculated from the produced current with respect to the different load resistances using the formula of , where , , and are the current, resistance, and contact area of MPC-TENG, respectively. The power density of the MPC-TENG was 500 μW/m² at 2 MΩ of load resistance, as shown in Figure S6b of the SI. Additionally, it is also crucial that the electrical output produced by the MPC-TENG should be stable over a long operational time to fulfill its applicability in real-life applications. Therefore, the MPC-TENG was operated at 100 rpm for a longer time than 8 h (>50,000 working cycles), and the electrical output was recorded, as shown in Figure 4(e). It is evident that the MPC-TENG produces a stable electrical output over a considerable time period. Furthermore, the roughness of the MPC-TENG was observed by obtaining the photographic images of the single cylinder (Figure S7a of the SI) and the FE-SEM images of the utilized Al/PTFE films (Figure S7b of the SI), and the produced electrical output by the single PC-TENG before and after 500 minutes of operation is also shown in Figure S7c of the SI. It was observed that there is a negligible amount of wear and tear on the PC-TENG without a reduction in electrical output. To check for adverse environmental effect such as humidity, the MPC-TENG was operated in various humid conditions, and its electrical output was observed as shown below. Figure S7d of the SI shows a photographic image of a complete setup to measure the electrical output from the MPC-TENG in various humid conditions and the corresponding electrical output. The electrical output from the MPC-TENG is not significantly reduced in humid environments (<70%). Therefore, the proposed MPC-TENG with enhanced stable electrical output is a promising device to efficiently harvest rotational mechanical momentum into electricity.

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Furthermore, the compatibility of the proposed MPC-TENG device to power the commercially available small-scale electronic devices was investigated. The 60 green light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were connected in a series connection and powered using the MPC-TENG when operated at 180 rpm, as shown in Figure 5(a) and the supporting video 1 of the SI. Owing to the DC electrical output produced by the MPC-TENG, the LEDs were continuously glowing without any fluctuation. Furthermore, various commercially available capacitors with different storage capacities were charged using the MPC-TENG device, as shown in Figure S8 of the SI. The energy produced by the MPC-TENG was stored in the 10 μF capacitor and then used to power the commercially available small-scale liquid crystal display (LCD) screen, as shown in the supporting video 1 of the SI. Figures 5(b) and 5(c) show the charging-discharging curve of the capacitor when powering the LCD using the MPC-TENG. Besides, to demonstrate the wind energy harvestability of the MPC-TENG, the 3D-printed wind cups were attached to drive the wind flow into electricity. The complete setup including an MPC-TENG, the wind cups, and the air gun setup for harvesting wind energy is shown in Figure 5(d). The MPC-TENG was operated at various applied wind speeds, and the produced electrical output was observed. The variation in output voltage and current from the MPC-TENG while increasing and decreasing the wind speed is shown in Figures 5(e) and 5(f). The self-sustained MPC-TENG integrated real-time alarm system was fabricated to detect unauthorized human/wild animal movements in a protected region. Figure 5(g) shows a schematic illustration of the MPC-TENG integrated with an alarm system that detects human/wild animal movements using a circuit as shown in its inset. The alarm system contains a buzzer, an LED indicator, a mechanical switch, a battery, and the wind-driven MPC-TENG (Figure 5(g)). In the ideal condition, the energy generated from the MPC-TENG is stored in the attached battery. When mechanical pressure is applied to the switch connected to the battery charged by the MPC-TENG, the stored energy is supplied to the buzzer and LED which work as an alarm system. Figure S9a of the SI shows the charging curve for the Li-ion battery charged with the help of MPC-TENG. The demonstration of the MPC-TENG integrated alarm system is shown in supporting video S2 of the SI. The detailed electronic circuit diagram used for the fabrication of the alarm system is shown in the inset of Figure 5(g), whereas the actual fabricated electronic circuit is shown in Figure S9b of the SI. Herein, the push button was used as a mechanical switch to connect the battery and buzzer/LED indicator. Furthermore, the MPC-TENG was attached to a Pelton wheel to harvest the hydrokinetic energy from water flow, as shown in Figure 5(h) and supporting video S3 of the SI. Figure 5(i) shows the energy output from the MPC-TENG when operated at different water flow speeds. The energy harvested from hydrokinetic energy-driven MPC-TENG was further stored in a 10 μF capacitor and fed to a digital thermometer for real-time water temperature analysis, as shown in Figure 5(j) and supporting video S3 of the SI. The MPC-TENG with enhanced DC electrical output can be used to harvest any type of rotational motion into electricity effectively.

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Figure 5

(a) Photographic image of glowing 60 green LEDs driven by MPC-TENG. (b) The charging and discharging curves of the 10 μF capacitor charged by the MPC-TENG operating at 100 rpm. (c) Photographic images of a small-scale LCD timer powered using the energy stored in the 10 μF capacitor from the MPC-TENG at 100 rpm. (d) Complete setup of the MPC-TENG with attached wind cups and the air gun to harvest energy from the wind. Output (e) voltage and (f) current from the wind-driven MPC-TENG. (g) Schematic representation of the MPC-TENG integrated real-time alarm system. (h) Complete setup of the MPC-TENG attached to the Pelton wheel for hydrokinetic energy harvesting. (i) Output voltage and current from the hydrokinetically driven MPC-TENG. (j) Photographic images of digital thermometer powered using the energy stored in the 10 μF capacitor from the hydrokinetic MPC-TENG.

4. Conclusion

In summary, we successfully fabricated the MPC-TENG to effectively harvest rotational mechanical moments into electricity. The MPC-TENG device structure was fabricated via the facile 3D printing technique. The four PC-TENGs based on the CS and LS working modes were fabricated and optimized to get enhanced electrical output. Thereafter, all the PC-TENGs were combined along with the simple capacitor filter circuit to produce DC electrical signals. The electrical performance of the fabricated device was systematically analyzed by increasing the number of PC-TENG and varying the applied rotation speed. The MPC-TENG produced ~40 V and ~12.5 μA DC electrical signals at 380 rpm. The MPC-TENG had a stable and high electrical output when operated for a large number of cycles. Such a highly stable DC electrical signal produced by the MPC-TENG was utilized to successfully charge energy storage devices as well as power small-scale electronics. The wind energy harvesting was also demonstrated at various wind speeds with the help of attached wind cups to the MPC-TENG. The energy produced by the MPC-TENG was further utilized to fabricate a self-sustaining real-time alarm system to detect unwanted presence at the designated place. This self-sustaining real-time alarm system can be highly useful in remote places lacking proper electricity. The Pelton wheel-attached MPC-TENG was demonstrated to successfully harvest abundantly available hydrokinetic energy in nature. From these results, the proposed novel MPC-TENG is expected to harvest the energy from rotational motions into electrical energy and store/power small-scale electronics.

Data Availability

The data will be made available upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIP) (Nos. 2018R1A6A1A03025708 and 2020R1A2B5B01002318).

Supplementary Materials

Figure S1: complete measurement setup including the MPC-TENG, external DC motor, and rpm controller. Figure S2: output (a) voltage, and (b) current of the PC-TENG in contact-separation and lateral-sliding working modes. Figure S3: (a) operational mechanism of the PC-TENG within MPC-TENG and (b) electrical output from the CS mode TENG. (c) Electrical output from the combined (CS+LS) TENG. (d) DC electrical output from individual TENGs inside the single cylinder of MPC-TENG. (e) DC electrical output produced by the single cylinder of MPC-TENG when the LS and CS TENGs are connected in parallel connection. Figure S4: (a) schematic of the rotational axle used for the fabrication of MPC-TENG. (b) Photographic images of the fabricated rotational axles with different lengths (D/2). (c) Electrical output produced by the single PC-TENG within MPC-TENG with rotational axles with different lengths. Figure S5: (a) schematic representing the connection of the PC-TENGs moving in upward and downward directions in MPC-TENG. (b) DC electrical output produced by the MPC-TENG when different combinations of cylinders are connected in parallel connection. Figure S6: (a) output voltage and current from the MPC-TENG across various load resistances. (b) Power density of the MPC-TENG across various load resistances. Figure S7: stability analysis of the MPC-TENG before and after 500 minutes of operation: (a) photographic images, (b) FE-SEM images of Al and PTFE utilized in MPC-TENG, and (c) AC electrical output from single PC-TENG within MPC-TENG. (d) Photographic image of the complete setup to measure the electrical output produced by the MPC-TENG in different humid environments and the measured voltages for the corresponding humid environment. Figure S8: charging curves for different capacitors charged by the MPC-TENG. Figure S9: (a) charging curve for the Li-ion battery. (b) Photographic image of the electronic circuit used in MPC-TENG integrated real-time alarm system. The web-link for the supporting videos is presented for the practical demonstration of MPC-TENG. (Supplementary Materials)

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Copyright © 2023 Mandar Vasant Paranjape et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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