| | Study | Country | Design | Participant characteristics | Sample size | Age | Male | Mean BMI | Definition of breakfast skippers | Number of breakfast skippers | Follow-up duration | Number of hypertensive patients | Variables adjusted | Quality score | | years | % | kg/m2 | years | |
| | Min 2011 | Korea | CS | Apparently healthy employees | 415 | 30–50 | 28.4 | 23.2 | Taking breakfast ≤3 days/week | 44 | NA | NR | Age and sex | 8 | | Odegaard 2013 | USA | PC | Community young adults | 3598 | 25∼37 | 45.5 | 26.7 | Taking breakfast ≤3 days/week | 1556 | 18 | 1003 | Age, study center, race, sex, education, cigarette smoking, physical activity, alcohol consumption, fast food restaurant use, dietary quality score, and BMI | 9 | | Deshmukh 2013 | USA | CS | Community young adults | 5316 | 20∼39 | 57.7 | 27.6 | Self-reported habitual breakfast skipping | 1277 | NA | 1313 | Age, gender, ethnicity, poverty income ratio, smoking status, alcohol consumption, physical activity, energy intake, and marital status | 9 | | Mogre 2016 | Ghana | CS | T2DM patients | 378 | 20∼70 | 34.9 | 26.8 | Self-reported habitual breakfast skipping | 88 | NA | 256 | Age, sex, duration of DM, marriage, education, BMI, and family history of DM | 8 | | Lee 2016 | Korea | CS | Community adults | 3880 | >20 | 40.5 | 23.7 | Self-reported habitual breakfast skipping | 510 | NA | 1004 | Age, sex, DM, regular exercise, current smoking, BMI, WC, and RBC count | 8 | | McCurley 2021 | USA | CS | Hospital employees | 602 | 20∼75 | 21 | NR | Taking breakfast ≤3 days/week | 102 | NA | 125 | Age, sex, race, ethnicity, education, shift work status, marital status, household size, job type, 1-year weight goal, and number of items purchased | 8 |
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BMI, body mass index; NR, not reported; NA, not applicable; CS, cross-sectional; PC, prospective cohort; DM, diabetes mellitus; T2DM, type 2 DM; RBC, red blood cells; WC, waist circumference.
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