|
| Rituals | Associated infection |
|
| Self-flagellation | HTLV-1 and hepatitis C |
| Ritualistic consumption raw mollusks | Angiostrongylus cantonensis-related eosinophilic meningitis |
| Ritualistic animal sacrifice | Mycobacterium bovis, orf, brucellosis, cutaneous anthrax, and rift valley fever |
| Sprinkling of holy water | Bacterial infections (surgical site, pneumonia) |
| Blood brotherhood and other rituals involving blood (e.g., group circumcision, skin scarification, bloodletting, and female genital mutilation) | HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, Clostridium tetani, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, syphilis, Trichomonas vaginalis, herpes simplex virus |
| Tattooing | Sporotrichosis, blood borne infections |
| Widow inheritance and similar rituals | HIV |
| Kumbha Mela (involving ritualistic bathing and dipping in rivers) | Diarrheal disease including cholera, respiratory infection including COVID-19 |
| Mortuary rituals | Cholera, Ebola, kuru |
| Ritual side rolls | Cutaneous larva migrans |
| Circumcision in Jewish infants | Herpes simplex virus |
| Ablution (involving nasal irrigation) | Naegleria fowleri meningoencephalitis |
| Mass gatherings (e.g., Haj) | Various infections including meningococcal meningitis, cholera, influenza, viral hepatitis, COVID-19, and tuberculosis |
|
