Low Computational Burden Adaptive Overcurrent Protection for Active Distribution Networks

Grisales-Soto, B.; Pérez-Londoño, S.; Mora-Flórez, J.

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1538306

International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

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Abstract Introduction Discussion Conclusions Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2023 | Article ID 1538306 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1538306

Low Computational Burden Adaptive Overcurrent Protection for Active Distribution Networks

B. Grisales-Soto,¹S. Pérez-Londoño,¹and J. Mora-Flórez¹

Academic Editor: Arvind R. Singh

Received26 Sept 2022

Revised22 Feb 2023

Accepted07 Mar 2023

Published05 Apr 2023

Abstract

Conventional distribution networks have evolved into active distribution networks due to the high penetration of distributed energy resources. These new networks have several protection issues; some are related to the high fault and load current variations due to the various operating conditions. This situation is faced by adaptive protection development, as proposed in this study, where variations among active distribution network operating conditions are considered to estimate the adaptive pickup current. This is used to estimate the overcurrent relay’s time dial setting, avoiding miscoordination. The proposed protection approach uses fast calculations and local measurements; consequently, a low computational burden is required to update the adaptive relay parameters for each operating condition without using communication infrastructure. The obtained results in the IEEE 34-nodes test feeder demonstrate the advantages of the proposed approach, accomplishing the coordinating time interval for phase and ground faults. These results show a high performance of primary and backup protection at different operating conditions of the proposed test system compared to the performance of the conventional protection approach. The proposed approach’s high performance, low computational burden, and communicationless characteristics make it suitable for immediate real-field implementation.

1. Introduction

1.1. Motivation

The correct integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) reduces the adverse effects of the increasing energy demand, accomplishing the requirements of emissions [1]. Besides, technology improvements have led to massive DER integration, evolving from conventional radial distribution systems to the nowadays active distribution networks (ADNs) [2]. However, this situation has resulted in changes in the power flow, short-circuit capability, and system dynamics, among others, which makes difficult ADN control, operation, and protection [3–6]. Therefore, this study proposes a low computational burden protection approach to surpass protection issues related to fault behaviour at different operating conditions (OCs) of the ADN.

1.2. State of the Art

As noticed in several recent proposals discussed in this section, ADN protection is a vibrant research topic. As presented next, central protection units (CPUs) are proposed to determine the ADN OC and update the relay settings. In [7, 8], a CPU monitors the breaker’s state; if a change is detected, it sends the offline estimated configuration settings to all relays according to the ADN configuration. On the other hand, a multiagent-based adaptive protection system is proposed in [9], where a CPU performs online short circuit calculations based on real-time information; then, the updated setting groups are sent to the relays. In [10], based on relay setting groups, the adaptive overcurrent relay coordination is proposed; however, communication links and a CPU are necessary to update the relays. In addition, [11] presents adaptive relay coordination using a CPU to update the relay settings when a change in the ADN is detected. In [12], an optimal configuration group is proposed for each ADN OC, using a CPU to identify network changes and update the relay settings. In [13], an adaptive protection scheme based on optimising the fault current limiters (FCLs) is proposed; a CPU calculates the new relay settings in the case of a new OC and sends the new settings to relays; however, the field implementation is not analysed. In [14], an optimal setting group is obtained for each OC, considering the protection system constraints, power quality, DERs, and FCL. However, topology detector software is needed to select the correct settings for each relay.

In the previously analysed proposals, CPUs imply longer updating times to receive and process the information and send the settings to the relays. Thus, during this time, the relays may operate with outdated settings. Another significant drawback is the strong dependence on a reliable communication system.

Contrary to the previously cited references, the following proposals determine the relay settings using communication schemes and avoiding CPUs. In [15], a voltage-based protection and sensitivity analysis are proposed; this uses local and neighbouring relay voltage phasors, and faults are detected using a comparison of sensitivity-based fault detection indices. The approach with dual-setting relays assisted by a communication scheme presented in [16] estimates the optimal relay settings for grid-connected and islanded ADN operation. In addition, to reduce the relay computational burden, in [17], a communication-based adaptive protection scheme is proposed; this reduces the dependence on external controllers by continuously calculating a dynamic pickup current, which depends on the DERs state. The approach in [18] uses a communication-based line differential protection scheme, where the signal comparison at both line ends detects the fault. On the other hand, in the protection proposal for ADN islanded mode in [19], the phase differences between the fault sequence currents at both line-ends are analysed for several OCs and used to determine fault location; however, a communication system is required to identify the fault accurately.

The previous proposals’ main drawbacks are related to the unavailability or latency of the required communication system. In most of the proposals, the loss of information is not considered.

Then, protection strategies based on local measurements and online Thevenin equivalent estimation to reduce communication dependency are analysed. In [20], adaptive protection uses the stored fault currents and those calculated from Thevenin’s equivalent to formulating adaptive coefficients; these adjust the fault currents seen by the relay under the new ADN OCs. On the other hand, considering the fault behaviour of electronically coupled DERs, in [21], an adaptive relay coordination method estimates the fault current and determines the operating time, guaranteeing the relay coordination. The high computational burden is the main drawback in [20, 21]. Similarly, an approach based on local measurements is proposed in [22], where voltage and current are used to calculate the backward Thevenin equivalent and to adapt the current threshold depending on the network OC. However, fault signals are required for setting, updating, and representing longer operating times. In [23], an optimal protection coordination approach is proposed using dual configuration overcurrent relays and daily operation data; however, coordination is not guaranteed for different ADN OCs, including DER disconnection. Authors in [24] propose a hybrid protection scheme using local voltage and current measurements; besides, the same relay settings are used for grid-connected and islanded modes, but the operating time varies highly depending on the OC. In [25], a protection scheme is proposed considering DERs equipped with FCL, and the proposed algorithm is based on the FCL impedance; however, this proposal is limited to particular ADN topologies. The overcurrent relays in [26] use two-time dial settings (TDSs); the first TDS value is for primary protection, while the second is for backup protection. This proposal considers synchronous DERs, and all relays experience high fault currents; in addition, variation in the DERs contribution is not presented in tests.

Table 1 summarises the previously presented state of the art, considering the following aspects of each proposal: (a) exclude the use of communicationless OC identification (exclude the OC identification); (b) shuts out the DER model at the protection strategy (obviate the DER model); (c) analyses different ADN configurations, considering radial and meshed networks (useful for radial and meshed ADNs); (d) does not require of any communication infrastructure (communicationless approach); (e) low online computation cost as avoids the use of expensive time algorithms as learning approaches and online short circuit analysis, among others (low online computation cost); (f) contains a module for fault detection (detect the fault); (g) identify the fault direction (identify the fault direction); (h) identification of used protection function (used protection function); and finally, (i) online relay parameter is updating in an adaptive protection strategy (online parameter update).

As presented in the previous state of the art, most proposals require a communication scheme or a CPU, which are costly and vulnerable to failures, affecting the protection performance. In addition, long update times are needed for centralised schemes because the CPU requires information to be centrally processed and sent to the relays. Similarly, proposals that require optimisation processes have a high computation burden and longer parameter update times. On the other hand, when using precalculated settings, it is required to ensure that each set of settings fully applies to the new OC. Likewise, it must be ensured that while the update process is being carried out, the relay operates adequately.

1.3. Contribution

Based on the aspects discussed in state of the art, the following contributions are considered, as presented in the last file of Table 1:(i)A communicationless adaptive overcurrent protection approach is proposed(ii)The proposed approach does not depend on the ADN OC (connection/disconnection of DERs)(iii)The overcurrent relay parameters are online updated using only local voltage and current measurements, requiring a low computation burden(iv)The proposal is not based on stored setting groups and does not require a CPU(v)The protection scheme uses simple calculations, low computation burden, and communicationless infrastructure, making it fast enough for the immediate real-field applications

1.4. Paper Organisation

Section two describes a conventional overcurrent relays (OCRs) coordination strategy. Then, the proposed adaptive approach is described in section three. Section four presents the test system, testing scenarios, and results. Finally, the last section highlights the conclusions derived from this research.

2. Conventional Coordination of Overcurrent Relays

Conventional coordination is performed using the relay curve, ADN topology, optimisation methods, or even learning-based approaches [27, 28]. Each relay must clear faults in its primary zone (primary protection) and, if required, clear faults in the adjacent protected zones (backup protection). In the case of faults, the disconnected ADN portion has to be the smallest; then, only the primary protection must operate. The closest upstream devices must operate when the primary protection does not operate to provide backup protection. The coordination procedure guarantees the previous in the case of a not significant variation in the ADN operating conditions [29].

In addition, a specific OCR identified as relay has the following parameters: the pickup current , the time dial setting , and the curve characteristic defined by constants and according to the IEC 60255-151 standard [30]. The operating time of during a fault , denoted as , is defined by equations (1) and (2). is the fault current estimated at the location.

In the case of phase relay coordination, two three-phase bolted faults are required. The first is located near the relay and defined as a maximum local fault ; the second is located at the protected line end and is known as a maximum remote fault . The corresponding maximum local and remote fault currents (, ) are used to estimate the local and remote operating times (, ), respectively. In the case of neutral relay coordination, the currents caused by local and remote phase-to-ground bolted faults are required.

The coordination procedure is frequently initiated at the farthest node from the source or equivalent power system. A fault in the system in Figure 1 is a local fault for , and simultaneously it is a remote fault for . For adequate protection performance, the relay operating times of and must satisfy the coordination equation defined in equation (3). The coordinating time interval is a constant defined as the time required for breaker opening plus an additional time as a safety criterion , as presented in equation (4) [31].

Finally, is defined by the maximum load current at location , as presented in equation (5), where is a constant bigger than the unity. Having defined using equation (1), then is obtained using equation (3). is obtained as the lowest value which satisfies equation (6).

3. Proposed Adaptive Protection Approach

This section proposes a communicationless adaptive overcurrent protection approach to maintain the directional relay coordination against ADN changes. In the case of a new ADN OC, this approach aims to adapt the relay settings from an initial optimal coordination strategy.

The proposed approach consists of three stages, as presented in Figure 2, where only the first stage is performed offline, and the last two stages are online. Variables and are counters, and and are variables defined by the relay sampling rate and the number of samples required to update the setting, respectively. As depicted in Figure 2, stage 1 is initially performed offline to determine the optimal relay coordination. Stage 2 aims to estimate the voltage and current phasors recursively and determine the fault presence . On the other hand, stage 3 is oriented to determine the adaptive relay settings using a one-cycle current phasor estimation .

3.1. Stage 1: Determination of the Reference Relay Coordination

This stage is oriented to determine the initial optimal relay coordination, defined as reference coordination, through an offline process. This is performed using , , and for any relay , where is the total number of relays. Besides, the optimal coordination is performed in the reference operating condition . During this , the ADN is connected to the main grid, and DERs operate at their maximum power to obtain the maximum fault current.

This stage is divided into the following three steps:

3.1.1. Step 1—Definition of the Objective Function

The operating time of for a fault is obtained from equation (1). The proposal considers an objective function aimed to minimise the total operating time of all primary relays, maintaining the selectivity between primary and backup relays. The coordination problem is mathematically modelled as presented in equation (7).

Constraints for the defined optimisation problem are given in equation (8).where and represent the operating times of any primary and backup relays ( and ), respectively. The parameters and are constraints of the mathematical model [32].

The adjustment step of is considered a continuous variable during the setting process. is based on the maximum load current as presented in equation (5) [33].

3.1.2. Step 2—Computation of Fault Data for Relay Coordination

The data required for coordination are obtained during , considering bolted faults to determine maximum local and remote currents ( and ), for any relay . As described in Section 2, three-phase faults are used for phase relays, while single-phase-to-ground faults are required for neutral relays.

3.1.3. Step 3—Estimation of Relay Settings in the Reference Coordination

The relay settings are determined by executing the optimisation model presented in step 1, using the data obtained in step 2. Those settings correspond to and for all the ADN relays. In addition, each relay stores and the corresponding minimum local operating time defined by equation (9). These values are used to update the relay settings, as presented in stage 3.

Similarly, this stage is performed to obtain the reference configuration for each relay in an islanded mode.

On the other hand, the technique proposed in [34] is used to detect the islanded OC, which is based on modifying the continuous wavelet transform (CWT) to accomplish its real-time implementation (RT-CWT). The islanded OC is evaluated by analysing power quality indices, such as voltage amplitude, event duration time, unbalanced degree, system frequency, grid impedance, and power angle.

3.2. Stage 2: Fault Detection and Direction Identification

This online stage is oriented to determine the presence of a fault in the forward relay direction. The stage is composed of the following four steps:

3.2.1. Step 1—Current and Voltage Phasors Estimation

The current and voltage phasors are estimated using a half-cycle signal discrete Fourier transform (DFT) [31]. In this case, a half-cycle wide moving window updated each sample is considered.

3.2.2. Step 2—Active Power Direction Estimation

As the active power flow changes continuously in an ADN, then in this step, the direction of the active power flow is determined using the phasors estimated in the previous step. The direction is estimated using a torque-based approach according to equation (10) [17].

Superscript indicates positive-sequence quantities, is torque, and is the impedance of the protected line. In the case of a backward direction of the active power flow, none of the relay settings is updated, and the process is restarted. A change of flow direction means a change in the ADN OC or reverse fault; then, the relay must not trip. In the case of an active power flow in the forward direction at , the next step is executed.

3.2.3. Step 3—Fault Detection

In this step, the magnitude of the estimated current phasor is compared with the last value of . Therefore, if the magnitude of is bigger than , then a fault is detected. Otherwise, the process returns to step 1.

3.2.4. Step 4—Relay Tripping Time Estimation

In the case of a fault, the relay calculates , using equations (1) and (2), where .

3.3. Stage 3: Relay Setting Actualisation

This online stage is oriented to determine the adaptive relay settings based on the average forward current. The following four steps comprise this stage:

3.3.1. Step 1—One-Cycle Current Phasor Estimation

This step consists of performing the one-cycle DFT of the current signal to estimate the phasor . In this case, a one-cycle wide moving window that slides cycle-by-cycle is used, as shown in Figure 3.

Once the current phasor is estimated, phasors are saved in an -length first-in-first-out storage system (FIFO).

3.3.2. Step 2—Adaptive Pickup Current Estimation

A variation in the system current in the case of a DER switching is noticed in the ADN presented in Figure 4 during normal OC. The is presented in equations (11) and (12), and in the case of no DER connection and DER connection, respectively. and are line impedances, is the load impedance, and and define the grid equivalent upstream of .

Comparing equations (11) and (12), then . In the case of DER disconnection, the relay experiences an increase in . Therefore, relay current variations indicate the disconnection/connection of the DERs. These variations during normal operating conditions (no fault) are used to continuously update each relay’s and .

In this step, considering the previous exposure, the adaptive pickup current is estimated using the average of the current phasors in the -length FIFO storage system . The value is selected according to the updating time required for ADN protection; then, in this study, is set as 5. The adaptive relay pickup current for each relay is estimated as in equation (13).

Finally, the relay discriminates a fault condition and increases in load current by continuously updating .

3.3.3. Step 3—Adaptive TDS Estimation

In the case of a fault at per unit distance of line in Figure 4, when the DER is switched, the total fault current at the downstream relays changes. is given by equations (14) and (15), in the case of no DER connection and DER connection, respectively.where is defined as presented in equation (16), and is the fault impedance.

Comparing equations (14) and (15), .

The variation in the fault current values generates changes in the relay operating times and therefore causes miscoordination. For this reason, the relay settings must be continuously updated before a fault condition.

The proposed approach obtains an adaptive , where the is adjusted while maintaining , for any relay . The adaptive time dial setting is calculated by using and , estimated in stage 1 and the last value of . If a DER is disconnected, then the of the upstream relay increases and is updated.

, , and are used to determine and . To guarantee , is used to obtain the , as shown in Figure 5. The values of , , and are obtained during the reference coordination. The adaptive dial setting is estimated using equations (17) and (18).

The relays and in Figure 4 are analysed as a specific application of the previous exposed. A DER disconnection results in a decrease in passing through the and, therefore, an increase in , while maintains its operating times constant. If relay settings are not adapted, the relay coordination is lost. When is updated, as shown in Figure 5, is the difference between the local and remote operation relay times when the DER is connected. Similarly, is the same time difference when the relay is updated due to DER disconnection. As noticed, is greater than , and the operation time of the backup relay is increased to guarantee relay coordination.

3.3.4. Step 4—Relay Settings Updating

Once the adaptive relay settings and have been estimated, these are updated in the relay.

4. Tests and Discussion

4.1. Test System

The proposed approach is validated in the IEEE 34-bus, 24.9 (kV) test system shown in Figure 6. The ADN is connected to the grid and has three DERs at nodes 858 (0.3 (MVA)), 834 (0.5 (MVA)), and 860 (0.2 (MVA)) and unbalanced loads. This work uses inverter-interfaced DER 1 and DER 3, considering the model in [35]. In addition, DER 2 is a synchronous machine. The total load is 1.3 (MVA), and the main substation’s short circuit capacity is 146 (MVA). 5P class CTs and 3P class PTs are used in tests.

4.2. Estimation of Relay Settings at the Reference Coordination

The optimal reference coordination is obtained as described in Section 3.1. The values of and are obtained considering local and remote bolted faults ( and ), . The value of is set to 1.5 times , the maximum load current value seen by each relay. Besides, the minimum TDS value used in the mathematical model is 0.02. The optimisation model is implemented in AMPL software, and the obtained values of by minimising equation (7) in the case of phase faults are presented in Table 2, for these relays close to DERs.

The performance of the optimal reference coordination is evaluated by considering three-phase bolted faults at the beginning of the line for different OCs, as shown in Figure 6. The performance of the proposed adaptive and conventional approaches is compared under different OCs, considering connection, disconnection, and variation in DER size.

4.3. Performance of Conventional Protection

Several combinations for DER states are considered in this section, where one means connected and zero means disconnected. The obtained results for the conventional approach are shown in Table 3. Here, the primary and backup relays redefined as PR and BR are analysed for each fault. In this case, for each OC and during fault , the and corresponding to the operating time of and , respectively, are shown. Moreover, is defined as the time difference between and ; to maintain coordination between DOCRs, must be greater than or equal to , here defined as 0.2 s, according to equation (3).

According to the results in Table 3, the relay coordination is maintained at , as the value is equal to or higher than the defined . However, if the and obtained at kept fixed for other OC, as in the case of conventional or nonadaptive protection, then the relay coordination is not guaranteed. The previous is a consequence of DER connection/disconnection at the different OCs; the direction and magnitude of currents have high variations causing relay miscoordination.

Figure 7 shows the operating time of R6 (PR) and R3 (BR) for fault F3 at three different OCs for the conventional and proposed approach. By disconnecting only the DER2 , the increases to 0.293 s for R6, while is maintained in 0.484 s for R3 as in the . As the fault current through PR decreases and the one in BR is maintained, the operating time difference in these relays decreases to 0.191 s below the ; this leads to miscoordination.

4.4. Performance of the Proposed Adaptive Protection Approach, in the Case of Phase Faults

As demonstrated in the previous section, the performance of the nonadaptive approaches has several drawbacks in the case of different OCs. This section evaluates the proposed adaptive approach considering the previously analysed three-phase faults and OCs.

The relay updates its settings for each OC if the active power flow is in the forward direction. Otherwise, the relay must remain configured using the last updated settings. The updated values of and for the considered OCs are presented in Table 4, as described in Stage 3, equations (13), (17), and (18).

According to Table 4, relay maintains the in all OCs, due to the slight variation in the adaptive pickup current. This current is nearly constant because this relay protects the fixed load. In the other relays, the changes if the direction of the active power flow is in the forward relay direction in the new OC. Thus, relay settings for , , and are not shown since the active power flow is in the inverse relay direction for the proposed OCs.

The results obtained for the proposed approach are shown in the last three columns in Table 3. The results show the advantages of this adaptive protection, maintaining the relay coordination in all of the evaluated OCs. Figure 7 shows how due to the adaptation in the BR settings , the increases concerning the conventional approach to guarantee the coordination.

As noticed in the proposed OCs, the relay coordination is not maintained using the conventional approach, which is maintained in the proposed approach. This relay coordination is maintained since the proposed approach continuously adapts the relay settings ( and ). Comparing the same fault in the with different OCs, the remains above , considering the connection and disconnection of DERs in the ADN.

The values highlighted using the underlined text in Table 3 demonstrate the relay miscoordination in the case of the conventional approaches. At the same time, coordination is maintained in the case of the proposed adaptive approach.

4.5. Performance of the Proposed Adaptive Protection and Conventional Approach for DERs Variation

In ADN, DERs frequently vary their generating capacity due to factors such as variations in the primary energy source. These variations cause changes in each relay’s , , and , as previously described.

The performance of proposed and conventional approaches is evaluated for the same faults considered above and DER variations. The results are shown in Table 5, where the power injected by DERs is reduced to the per unit value shown in each column concerning their rated power. It is noticed that there is miscoordination for the conventional approach, while the coordination is maintained for the proposed adaptive approach.

4.6. Performance of the Proposed Adaptive Protection and Conventional Approach for Islanded Condition

Considering the operating condition where the main grid is disconnected, the relays update the settings based on the reference coordination for the islanded condition; then, the proposed adaptive scheme is integrated at each relay as described in Section 3. Table 6 shows the results obtained for the conventional and proposed adaptive approaches for a local fault F1, and F2 located in front of relays R2 and R8, respectively, under different OCs.

In this case, although the conventional relays are updated with new settings when the main grid is disconnected, changes in the OC generate inadequate protection performance. However, the proposed approach responds adequately to changes in the ADN even when operating in islanded conditions.

4.7. Analysis of Computational Burden

The proposed approach online stages are evaluated using an Intel Core i-5-4590 CPU 3.3 GHz processor, 8 GB of RAM PC-based relay. Complete stage 2 takes approximately 0.120 (ms), while stage 3 takes approximately 0.092 (ms), considering 32 samples/cycle. In addition, the results presented in Tables 3, 5, and 6 show the minimum required time in protecting applications, which is around 95 (ms) for the primary protection, while the backup protection minimum operating time is around 290 (ms). It means a maximum error in the tripping time of , which does not affect the protection strategy, considering the test bed proposed.

These results demonstrate the high capabilities of the proposed approach and the straightforward implementation in conventional digital relays.

5. Conclusions

This study analyses the drawbacks of nonadaptive protection approaches, demonstrating their unsuitability for facing common challenges in ADNs. This situation led to the proposal of adaptive protection approaches that best fit such electric networks’ behaviour. The proposed approach is straightforward, has a low computation burden, and is a reliable protection solution, where the continuous setting adapting using only local measurements maintains the relay coordination even in the case of different OCs. As demonstrated during tests at the IEEE 34-bus system, the proposed approach’s performance is not affected by DER switching.

Finally, the proposed communicationless approach uses only local measurements to determine the adaptive relay setting, making this advantageous compared to other proposals. This straightforward proposal is suitable for immediate implementation utilising the hardware of nowadays standard digital relays.

Data Availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

This study is a result of project 6-20-6 funded by the Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira (UTP), and project contract 774-2020 (Integra2023) funded by the Colombian Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation (Minciencias). The ICE3 Research Group obtains this research product at the UTP.

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Copyright © 2023 B. Grisales-Soto et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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