Rice-Based Alcoholic Fermented Beverages of North-East India: Insight into Ethnic Preparation, Microbial Intervention, Ethnobotany, and Health Benefits

Table 3

Plants used in starter cakes and traditional therapeutic uses in North-East India.

States	Fermented rice beverages	Starter cakes	Herbs/plants used in starter cake preparation and its health benefits	References
Arunachal Pradesh	Opo/Kala apong	Siiyeh	Clerodendrum indicum Linn.: inflammation, bronchitis, febrifuge, and cough. Cissampelos pareira Linn.: ulcer, wound, rheumatism, fever, asthma, cholera, diarrhoea, inflammation, snakebite, malaria, rabies, and blood purification	[20]
	Themsing	Pham/Phab	Cinnamomum glanduliferum Meisn.: cold, cough, pain, and diarrhea	[20]
	Nyongin/Chhang, arrak, kinnauri	Opop	Vernonia cinerea Less: inflammation, diarrhea, cough, asthma, Parkinson’s diseases, and leprosy. Amomum aromaticum Roxb.: throat trouble, inflammation, digestive disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, and respiratory problems	[20, 73, 74]
	Sira-oa	Paa	Cissampelos pareira Linn.: ulcer, wound, rheumatism, fever, asthma, cholera, diarrhoea, inflammation, snakebite, malaria, rabies, and blood purification. Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.: tumors, skin diseases, snake bite, scorpion sting, intestinal infections, and kidney dysfunctions	[75]
	Apong	Ipoh	Scoparia dulcis Linn.: diarrhea, stomach ache, kidney stone, kidney problem, and fever. Leucas lanata Benth.: common cold, high fever, skin disease, headache, and conjunctivitis	[20, 76]
	Pona	Ipoh/Siye	Leucas aspera Spreng: pyretic and insecticide. Piper betle Linn.: bacterial, wound healing, mouth freshener, digestion, and pulmonary diseases. Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb.: antioxidant, inflammation, and skin ageing. Mangifera indica Linn.: diarrhea, dysentery, anaemia, asthma, bronchitis, cough, hypertension, insomnia, rheumatism, toothache, haemorrhage, and piles	[20, 31, 77]
Arunachal Pradesh/Sikkim	Rakshi	Marcha	Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb.: antioxidant properties, inflammation, and skin ageing. Mangifera indica Linn.: diarrhea, dysentery, anaemia, asthma, bronchitis, cough, hypertension, insomnia, rheumatism, toothache, haemorrhage, and piles	[20, 78]
Assam	Apong	Apop pitha	Adhatoda vasica Linn.: bronchitis, leprosy, blood disorders, heart troubles, asthma, fever, vomiting, loss of memory, leucoderma, jaundice, tumors, sore-eye, fever, and gonorrhea. Actinodaphne obovata (Nees) Bl: treats fractures. Costus speciosus (J.Koenig) Sm.: bacterial, hyperglycemic, inflammation, pyretic, arvicidal, stress, and estrogenic. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urb.: wound healing, inflammation, ulcer, hepatoprotective, convulsant, sedative, immunostimulant, cardioprotective, diabetic, tumor, viral, bacterial, insecticidal, fungal, and antioxidant properties. Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.: fever, edema, dysentery, rheumatalgia, whooping cough, jaundice, throat pain, hepatitis-B infection, soothing pain, dysmenorrhea, and carbunculosis. Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.: diuretic, cold, inflammation, kidney stones, and renal ailments. Naravelia zeylanica (Linn.) DC.: helminthiasis, dermatopathy, leprosy, inflammation, wounds, and ulcers. Piper longum Linn.: chronic bronchitis, asthma, constipation, gonorrhea, diarrhea, cholera, malaria, viral hepatitis, respiratory infections, stomachache, bronchitis, cough, and tumor. Piper nigrum Linn.: antioxidant, microbial, tumour, and inflammation properties. Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nees: bacterial, fungal, diabetic, inflammatory, cancer, and hepatoprotective properties. Scoparia dulcis Linn.: diarrhea, stomach ache, kidney stones, kidney problems, and fever. Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Buch. -Ham. ex C. B. Clarke: chronic fever, liver disorders, ceptic, urinary disorders, skin diseases, cough, hiccup, and poisoning	[29, 58, 79–87]
	Jonga-mod	Bakhor/Surachi/Phap	Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merr.: digestion, inflammation, seasickness, and sore throat. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.: bacterial, fungal, diabetic, inflammation, and antioxidant. Asclepias gigantea Lam.: anthelmintic, analgesic, astringent, inflammation, tumor, and digestion. Capsicum frutescens Linn.: cough, toothache, sore throat, parasitic infections, rheumatism, and wound healing. Clerodendrum infortunatum Linn.: bronchitis, asthma, fever, inflammation, burning sensation, and epilepsy. Plumbago indica Linn.: skin diseases, infection, intestinal worms, acne, sores, and ulcers. Saccharum officinarum Linn.: hemorrhage, inflammation, jaundice, and urinary tract problems. Scoparia dulcis Linn.: diarrhea, stomach ache, kidney stones, kidney problems, and fever	[30, 88–92]
	Jou bishi	Emao/ Amao/Angkur	Clerodendrum infortunatum Linn.: bronchitis, asthma, fever, inflammation, burning sensation, and epilepsy. Oryza sativa Linn.: cardiovascular disease, blood glucose regulation, obesity, type 2 diabetes, bacterial, and skin ageing. Scoparia dulcis Linn.: diarrhea, stomach ache, kidney stones, kidney problems, and fever. Xanthium strumarium Linn.: rhinitis, nasal sinusitis, headache, gastric ulcer, urticaria, rheumatism bacterial, fungal, and arthritis	[93–95]
	Xaj Pani/Koloh pani	Vekur pitha/Xaj pitha	Oryza sativa Linn.: cardiovascular disease, blood glucose regulation, obesity, type 2 diabetes, bacterial, and skin ageing. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urb.: leprosy, lupus, ulcer, diarrhoea, fever, amenorrhea, genitourinary tract diseases, and anxiety. Laurus bejolghota Buch. -Ham.: stomach disorder, fever, urinary stone, toothache, bone fracture, wound healing, pain, skin diseases, arthritis, diarrhea, liver trouble, and bacterial. Cissampelos pareira Linn.: ulcer, wound, rheumatism, fever, asthma, cholera, diarrhoea, inflammation, snakebite, malaria, rabies, and blood purification. Clerodendrum infortunatum Linn.: bronchitis, asthma, fever, inflammation, burning sensation, and epilepsy. Croton caudatus Geiseler: liver diseases, fever, and sprain. Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.: brain tonic, detoxifying agent, and hepatoprotective. Lygodium flexuosum (Linn.) Sw.: jaundice, dysmenorrhea, and wound healing. Naravelia zeylanica (Linn.) DC.: helminthiasis, dermatopathy, leprosy, rheumatalgia, odontalgia, colic inflammation, wound, ulcer, cure cold, headache, migraine, itches and skin allergy, dermatitis, malarial fever and headache, and rhinitis. Pteridium aquilinum Linn.: weed control, animal bedding, cover mulch, insect repellent, fungal agent, and biofuel. Piper nigrum Linn.: antioxidant, microbial, tumour, and inflammation. Sida rhombifolia Linn.: diarrhea, malarial, gastrointestinal dysentery, fever, asthma, inflammation, bacterial, oxidant, and anxiety. Smilax perfoliata Lour.: toothbrush and blood purifier	[80, 87, 93, 94, 96–102]
	Arak/Hor alank	Thap	Croton joufra Roxb.: intestinal helminthic infections, fermenting liquor, and arrow poison. Amomum corynostachyum Wall.: flavor and fragrant, cooling, and refreshing. Acacia pennata (Linn.) Willd.: rheumatism, headache, and fever	[35, 103, 104]
	Sujen	Perok kushi	Allium sativum Linn.: indigestion, respiratory and urinary infection, cardiac disorder, carminative, antipyretic, sedative, aphrodisiac, and diuretic. Zingiber officinale Roscoe: headaches, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, cancer, autoimmune disease, hypertension, hypercholesteremia, hyperuricemia, and bacterial infection. Oryza sativa Linn.: cardiovascular diseases, blood glucose regulation, obesity, type 2 diabetes, bacterial, and skin ageing. Scoparia dulcis Linn.: diarrhea, stomach ache, kidney stones, kidney problems, and fever. Naravelia zeylanica (Linn.) DC.: helminthiasis, leprosy, dermatopathy, rheumatalgia, odontalgia, colic inflammation, wound, ulcer, cure cold, headache, migraine, itches and skin allergy, dermatitis, malarial fever and headache, and rhinitis. Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merr.: digestion, inflammation, seasickness, and sore throat. Costus speciosus (J.Koenig) Sm.: bacterial, hyperglycemic, inflammation, pyretic, arvicidal, stress, and estrogenic. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.: bacterial, fungal, diabetic, inflammation, and antioxidant. Pteridium aquilinum Linn.: weed control, animal bedding, cover mulch, insect repellent, fungal agent, and biofuel. Alpinia malaccensis (Burm.f.) Roscoe: stomachic, diarrhea, expectorant, rheumatism, wounds, sore, and ringworm. Gomphrena sessilis Linn.: arthritis, backache, diarrhea, constipation, and ulcer. Capsicum annuum Linn.: stomachic, toothache, poor circulation, fever, hyperlipidemia, heart disease, osteoarthritis, shingles, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetic neuropathy, fibromyalgia, and back pain. Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch. -Ham.) Sweet: anthelmintic and cardiotonic agent. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urb.: wound healing, leprosy, lupus, ulcer, diarrhea, fever, amenorrhea, female genitourinary tract diseases, anxiety, and cognition. Cyprus sp.: gastrointestinal, respiratory, blood disorder, menstrual irregularities, and inflammation. Desmodium sp.: asthma, typhoid fever, inflammation, malaria, infantile malnutrition, and dysentery. Phyllodium pulchellum (Linn.) Desv.: insect repellent, cancer, hemorrhages, fever, edema, liver injury, and viral infection. Equisetum sp.: genitourinary disease, inflammation, wound healing, rheumatic disease, prostatitis, and hypertension. Lygodium flexuosum (Linn.) Sw.: jaundice, dysmenorrhea, wound healing, and eczema. Melastoma malabathricum Linn.: diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhoids, wounds, toothache, and stomach ache. Psidium guajava Linn.: gastrointestinal infection and indigestion. Pothos scandens Linn.: swelling, wound, muscle catches, sprain, bone fracture, blister, and diarrhea. Rubus sp.: wound, diarrhea, pain, diabetes, inflammation, and microbial agent. Saccharum officinarum Linn.: production of sugar, ethanol, and other industrial uses. Solanum torvum Sw.: fever, wound, tooth decay, reproductive problem, and hypertension. Thunbergia cordifolia Nees: pyretic, inflammation, and bacterial. Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew.: skin disease, rheumatism, ulcer, pain, fever, and hypotension	[36, 73, 99, 102, 105–113]
	Judima	Humao	Hedyotis diffusa Willd.: inflammation-linked diseases, such as hepatitis, appendicitis, and urethritis. Solanum ferox Linn.: fever, wound, toothache, cough, asthma, fever, vomiting, sore throat, and gonorrhea	[114–116]
Manipur	Atingba/Waiyu	Hamei	Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp.: diabetes, hypertension, and other chronic diseases. Dryopterissp.: inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis, wound, and ulcer	[116–118]
Meghalaya	Chubitchi	Wanti	Plumbago zeylanica (Linn.) Cav.: chronic rheumatoid arthritis, skin diseases, tumorous growth, menstrual disorders, and viral warts. Clerodendrum infortunatum Linn.: bronchitis, asthma, fever, inflammation, burning sensation, and epilepsy. Thelypteris cylindrothrix (Rosenst.) Iwatsuki: used in starter cake preparation	[116, 119]
	Kiad/Sadhier	Thiat	Amomum aromaticum Roxb.: throat trouble, inflammation, digestive disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, and respiratory problem. Musa paradisiaca Linn.: diarrhea, dysentery, intestinal ulcer, diabetes, nephritis, gout, hypertension, and cardiac disease. Costus speciosus (J.Koenig) Sm.: bacterial, hyperglycemic, pyretic, inflammation, arvicidal, stress, and estrogenic	[26, 40, 120]
Nagaland	Zutho/Zhuchu	Piazu/Khrei/Khekhrii	Oryza sativa Linn.: cardiovascular disease, blood glucose regulation, obesity, type 2 diabetes, bacterial, and skin ageing	[26, 94]
Sikkim	Bhaati jaanr	Marcha	Buddleja asiatica Lour.: fever, cough, sore throat, cold, stomach ache, diarrhea, malaria, dysentery, and other ailments. Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less.:inflammation, diarrhea, cough, smoking cessation, asthma, Parkinson’s disease, and leprosy. Zingiber officinale Roscoe: headaches, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, cancer, autoimmune disease, hypertension, hypercholesteremia, hyperuricemia, and bacterial infection	[74, 75, 121]
Tripura	Langi/chuwak	Chuwan	Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex C. DC.: Rheumatic, eye and ear diseases, inflammation, cardio disorder, CNS disorder, and tumor. Litsea monopetala (Roxb. ex Baker) Pers. Khuwalu: Gonorrhea, skin disease, and arthritis. Moringa oleifera Lam.: Asthmatic, diabetic, fertility, hepatoprotective, inflammatory, cancer, microbial, oxidant, cardiovascular, ulcer, allergic, wound healing, analgesic, and pyretic. Saccharum officinarum Linn.: production of sugar, ethanol, and other industrial uses	[49, 122–124]