Exploring the Drug Repurposing Versatility of Valproic Acid as a Multifunctional Regulator of Innate and Adaptive Immune Cells

Figure 1

VPA inhibits LPS signaling in macrophages. VPA inhibits the production of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α) after stimulation with LPS by affecting the phosphorylation of NF-κB, PI₃K, Akt, and MDM2. Therefore, there is an increase in the levels of the NF-κB inhibitor p53 and in the levels of the negative regulator of Akt, PTEN. Green arrows indicate the processes, molecules, or mediators in the signaling pathway that are augmented and/or promoted by VPA. Red arrows indicate processes, molecules, or mediators in the signaling pathway that are inhibited by VPA.