Preparation of Few-Layered WS<sub>2</sub> and Its Thermal Catalysis for Dihydroxylammonium-5,5<span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" style="vertical-align:-0.06569958pt" id="M1" height="15.1614pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0657574 -15.0957 5.14162 15.1614" width="5.14162pt"><g transform="matrix(.012,0,0,-0.012,0,-7.578)"><path id="g50-31" d="M310 541L304 571C290 586 211 619 185 610L80 76L131 52L310 541Z"/></g></svg>-</span>Bistetrazole-1,1<span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" style="vertical-align:-0.06569958pt" id="M2" height="15.1614pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0657574 -15.0957 5.14162 15.1614" width="5.14162pt"><g transform="matrix(.012,0,0,-0.012,0,-7.578)"><use xlink:href="#g50-31"/></g></svg>-</span>Diolate

Shang, Yiping; Yang, Wu; Xu, Yabei; Pan, Siru; Wang, Huayu; Cao, Xiong

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/7458645

Journal of Nanomaterials

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Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2019 | Article ID 7458645 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/7458645

Preparation of Few-Layered WS₂ and Its Thermal Catalysis for Dihydroxylammonium-5,5-Bistetrazole-1,1-Diolate

Yiping Shang,¹Wu Yang,¹Yabei Xu,¹Siru Pan,²Huayu Wang,¹and Xiong Cao¹

Academic Editor: Ashok K. Sundramoorthy

Received08 Aug 2019

Revised13 Oct 2019

Accepted19 Oct 2019

Published06 Dec 2019

Abstract

In this study, few-layered tungsten disulfide (WS₂) was prepared using a liquid phase exfoliation (LPE) method, and its thermal catalytic effects on an important kind of energetic salts, dihydroxylammonium-5,5-bistetrazole-1,1-diolate (TKX-50), were investigated. Few-layered WS₂ nanosheets were obtained successfully from LPE process. And the effects of the catalytic activity of the bulk and few-layered WS₂ on the thermal decomposition behavior of TKX-50 were studied by using synchronous thermal analysis (STA). Moreover, the thermal analysis data was analyzed furtherly by using the thermokinetic software AKTS. The results showed the WS₂ materials had an intrinsic thermal catalysis performance for TKX-50 thermal decomposition. With the few-layered WS₂ added, the initial decomposition temperature and activation energy () of TKX-50 had been decreased more efficiently. A possible thermal catalysis decomposition mechanism was proposed based on WS₂. Two dimensional-layered semiconductor WS₂ materials under thermal excitation can promote the primary decomposition of TKX-50 by enhancing the H-transfer progress.

1. Introduction

Dihydroxylammonium-5,5-bistetrazole-1,1-diolate (TKX-50) [1, 2] is a synthetic high-energy-density material which has a high detonation velocity, high density, and low toxicity properties. It is considered as one of the substitutes to conventional energetic materials (EM) [3–7], such as RDX and HMX. It is interesting and valuable to study thermal decomposition behavior and thermodynamics for its potential applications.

Transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) materials [8, 9] have attracted much attention for diverse applications in various fields due to their unique optical and electrical properties [10, 11]. Bulk TMD materials can be exfoliated to form few-layered materials through micromechanical and electrochemical methods. During the exfoliating process, sandwiched tungsten and sulfur layers were peeled off as strong interlayer bonding and weak interlayer van der Waals interactions were broken by solvent action and ultrasound waves. As a novel few-layered material, exfoliated TMD materials show superior properties than raw TMD materials [12–15]. Its catalytic activity would significantly improve, since there would be more exposed edges, better conductivity, and more exposed area on the material’s surface [16, 17]. Additionally, samples after the exfoliation process provide more surface areas and produce an abundance of surface-active sites [18].

As a typical TMD material, tungsten disulfide (WS₂) is widely used as a catalyst in photochemistry and electrochemistry fields due to its unique physical, optical, electrical, and structural properties [19–22]. However, the applications of WS₂ as a catalyzer in the energetic materials have not been reported. It is of great importance and significance to study thermal decomposition performance of TKX-50 by using WS₂ as thermal catalyst [23].

In this study, few-layered WS₂ was prepared by bulk exfoliation via the liquid phase exfoliation (LPE) method. The catalytic properties of raw and as-obtained WS₂ for TKX-50 thermal decomposition were studied through STA. Furthermore, activation energy () was calculated by using thermal kinetic software AKTS. A possible thermal catalysis mechanism of TKX-50 was provided with the WS₂ added. This work offers a new way to design and fabricate TKX-50-based composite with high thermal decomposition performances.

2. Experiment

2.1. Materials

N-Methyl pyrrolidone (NMP, >99.5% (GC)) and bulk WS₂ (average 2 μm, 99.9%) were purchased from Shanghai Aladdin Bio-Chem Technology Co. Ethanol was bought from Tianjin Beilian Chemical Co. Ltd. TKX-50 was provided from the Institute of Chemical Materials, CAEP. These four chemicals were used as received without further purification. The few-layered WS₂ were prepared by the LPE method. Deionized water was homemade in the lab.

2.2. Preparation of Few-Layered WS₂

First, 20 mg of the bulk WS₂ and 30 mL of NMP were mixed together into a glass vial. The solution was then sonicated in an ultrasonic machine at a frequency of 60 kHz, until the sample became a colloidal suspension. Next, large sediments and NMP were separated in a centrifuge washed by a mixture of deionized water and ethyl alcohol in different ratios. Finally, the few-layered WS₂ was obtained in an oven after drying at 50°C. The exfoliating progress by the LPE method is shown in Figure 1(a). Bulk structure for raw WS₂ in Figure 1(b) would be exfoliated into a few-layered structure for the processed WS₂ in Figure 1(c).

(a)

(b)

(c)

2.3. Characterization and Tests

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were performed to analyze the morphology of exfoliated WS₂ in a Libra 200 microscope (ZEISS, German) operated at 200 kV and a field emission scanning electron microscope (Tescan Mira 3 LMH Czech Tescan Company), respectively. For crystal structure analysis, Raman spectra were collected on a Raman spectrophotometer (DXR-smart Raman) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed on a DX_2700 X-ray diffractometer (Dandong Haoyuan Co. Ltd.).

Thermal gravity analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) data were investigated by a simultaneous thermal analyzer (STA) 449F3 Jupiter (Germany, NETZSCH) at a temperature range of 40-400°C under condition of argon to analyze the WS₂’s effects on the decomposition of TKX-50. Bulk and few-layered WS₂ was mixed with TKX-50 severally for 1 wt% and 3 wt% at different heating rates (5, 10, 15, and 20 K·min^-1) under 99.9% argon atmosphere. Samples were named B1, F1, B3, F3, and TKX-50 presented in Table 1 in order to represent the five samples conveniently. Kinetic analysis of thermal decomposition was carried out by a thermal analysis software AKTS (Setaram Co. Ltd. France).

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Structural Analysis

As shown in Figure 2(a), the diffraction pattern of the bulk WS₂ has five peaks appearing at 14.35°, 39.45°, 43.95°, 49.65°, and 75.85°, corresponding to (0 0 2), (1 0 3), (1 0 4), (1 0 5), and (0 0 10) of 2H-phase WS₂ (JCPDS 04-003-5636). The XRD pattern of the processed WS₂ was consistent with the bulk one indicating that each of the two WS₂ was in the 2H phase. Raman modes located at 350 and 420 cm^-1 in Figure 2(b) further confirmed that the processed WS₂ had all the characteristics of the 2H phase WS₂, which was consistent with the XRD results.

(a)

(b)

3.2. Morphological Analysis

Morphological results were analyzed from the TEM and SEM images. The TEM image of bulk and treated WS₂ shown in Figures 3(a) and 3(b) indicated that the exfoliated WS₂ had a lamellar structure with thin layers. Examples of few-layered sheets were observed for the processed WS₂ by SEM images shown in Figures 1(c), 3(c), and 3(d), which were smaller and much thinner than the bulk WS₂ presented in Figure 1(b). The lateral sizes of the processed sheets varied from 500 nm to 2 μm. The TEM and SEM images indicated that the WS₂ was successfully exfoliated into a few-layered nanostructure. As the uniform regular lattice was observed in the HR-TEM image in Figure 4, single crystal for WS₂ was shown clearly.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

3.3. Thermal Analysis

The heat flow curves shown in Figure 5 and the thermogravimetric curves in Figure 6 corresponded to each other. The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) curves had two decomposition peaks related to the primary decomposition and the secondary decomposition process, respectively, which was supported by literature [24, 25]. When the 1 wt% few-layered WS₂ was added, the initial decomposition temperature of the TKX-50 decreased by about 8.3°C, from 237.7 to 229.4°C. Upon adding the 1 wt% bulk WS₂, the decomposition temperature of the TKX-50 decreased by 7°C, from 237.7°C to 230.7°C. When the concentration of the WS₂ increased, its catalytic effect on the thermal decomposition of the TKX-50 increased. The initial decomposition temperatures of the TKX-50 were observed to be 13.1°C and 10.6°C depressed than the original ones, when the 3% few-layered and bulk samples were added. A summary of DSC results presented in Table 2 includes onset temperatures (-onset) along with first (-peak₁) and second peak temperatures (-peak₂) for the TKX-50 containing different amounts of bulk and few-layered WS₂. The catalytic effects of the WS₂ were clearly observed as the -onset, -peak₁, and -peak₂ decreased. Moreover, it was obvious that the WS₂ catalyst content (either bulk or few-layered) in the samples slightly decreased the peak height, as is shown in Figure 5.

TG curves and DTG curves presented in Figure 6 showed the thermogravimetry of the five samples. It could be seen from the figure that the addition of WS₂ led to the advance of the thermal weight loss of TKX-50 and the decrease of the weightlessness rate. The decrease of the weightlessness rate may be due to the fact that the added WS₂ will not decompose before 500°C. The advance TG and DTG mass loss curves give more evidence of the catalytic of WS₂ in the decomposition of TKX-50.

A possible mechanism proposed in this work could be verified through the DTG curves in Figure 6. The primary and secondary decompositions of TKX-50 were corresponding to two gas and energy release processes. The gas release could be reflected in the TG and DTG curves when the mass loss happened. The release of NH₃ and H₂O in the primary decomposition corresponded to the start temperatures and anterior peaks of DTG curves [26]. The release of CO₂, N₂, NH₃, N₂O, H₂O, etc. in the secondary decomposition related to the secondary peaks of DTG curves. Evidently, the addition of WS₂ led the initial temperature and primary maximum values of DTG curves ahead. A summary of the first (-peak₁) and second peak temperatures (-peak₂) of DTG curves is shown in Table 3. The -peak₁ of B1 and B3 at 236.2°C and 233.7°C was higher than F1 and F3 at 234.8°C and 231.0°C and lower than the TKX-50 at 240.5°C, indicating that both two WS₂ could boost the primary decomposition of TKX-50 and few-layered WS₂ had a better catalytic effect. However, the secondary peak temperatures of DTG curves had no obvious change with the addition of WS₂, which could be concluded that the addition of WS₂ could boost the primary decomposition of TKX-50, but not the secondary one, and the few-layered WS₂ could be even more effective.

3.4. Thermokinetic Analysis

In order to compare the changes of intuitively, two thermokinetic analytic procedures, the Kissinger method [27] (Equation (2)) and the Ozawa method [28] (Equation (3)) based on the Arrhenius equation (Equation (1)), were applied by using the AKTS software. AKTS uses the TG or DSC testing parameters to derive and evaluate the without explicitly guessing a particular form of the reaction model [29].

In these equations, is the reaction progress, is the model function, is the preexponential factor, is the activation energy, is the time, is the ideal gas constant (8.314 J·mol^-1·K^-1), and is the absolute temperature.

The analyzed by the Kissinger method was presented in Table 4. Upon analyzing the DSC curves, the E_a of the TKX-50 decreased from 159.867 kJ·mol^-1 to 155.617 and 150.316 kJ·mol^-1 after adding 1 wt% of raw and few-layered WS₂, respectively. Moreover, the of the TKX-50 decreased more to 145.019 and 141.092 kJ·mol^-1 after adding 3 wt% of bulk and few-layered WS₂, respectively. The changing trend of calculated by the TG curve analysis, as is shown in Table 4, was consistent with that by the DSC curves. However, the values were slightly different. After the addition of 1 wt% of raw and few-layered WS₂, the of the TKX-50 decreased from 169.66 kJ·mol^-1 to 154.946 and 145.316 kJ·mol^-1, respectively. Upon adding 3 wt% bulk and few-layered WS₂, the of the TKX-50 decreased to 141.271 kJ·mol^-1 and 137.837 kJ·mol^-1 which indicated the better catalysis of few-layered WS₂.

The calculated by the Kissinger method indicated that both raw and treated WS₂ could reduce the of TKX-50 thermal decomposition, and the few-layered WS₂ could abate it more. Moreover, increasing the catalyst content in the material could enhance its catalytic effect.

The calculated by the Ozawa method were consistent with the Kissinger method. As shown in Figure 7(a), during the reaction progress from 0.1 to 0.9, the decreased with the 1 wt% addition of the WS₂, which demonstrated the catalysis of bulk and few-layered WS₂. Besides, F1 and F3 had the lower than B1 and F3 in Figures 7(a) and 7(b). The curves in Figures 7(a) and 7(b) shared similar data trends, which indicated that these five samples likely followed the same reaction mechanism.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

The calculated with the TG curves using the Ozawa method in Figures 7(c) and 7(d) showed similar trends with above results, though the relevancy of the curve obtained by the analysis of the TG curve was not as good as that of the DSC curves.

The result of thermal and thermokinetic analysis could be concluded as follows. Compared with the pure TKX-50, the addition of few-layered and bulk WS₂ promoted its thermal decomposition. The sample in the absence of the WS₂ catalyst had the highest initial decomposition temperature and , while the sample containing 3 wt% of the few-layered catalyst had the lowest initial decomposition temperature and . The increase in the concentration of the WS₂ further promoted thermal decomposition, and the few-layered catalyst enhanced the decomposition of the TKX-50 more compared to the bulk one.

As was seen in Figure 8, a possible mechanism was proposed that WS₂ materials were excited when the heating energy was greater than the band gap energy and then electron-hole pairs separated [30]. Separated conduction-band electrons and valence band holes would cause fast charge transfer and promote the proton transfer from H atom of NH₃OH⁺ to O atom of bisteterazole in the TKX-50 [31]. NH₃OH⁺ is not stable in high temperature and would decompose into NH₃ and H₂O with energy release. With more surface area, more active sites, more exposed edges, and better electrical conductivity, few-layered WS₂ would increase the proton transfer activity than the raw material. Furthermore, supported by the DTG and DSC curves, the existence of WS₂ promoted the decomposition and recombination of NH₃OH⁺ with producing H₂O and NH₃ which caused gas and initial energy release to advance.

4. Conclusion

In summary, a novel and effective few-layered catalyst for the energetic salt TKX-50 was prepared. A thermal analysis of the TKX-50 mixed with different ratios of bulk and few-layered WS₂ was carried out to study the effects of bulk and few-layered WS₂ on the thermal decomposition of TKX-50. The results are concluded as follows: (i)Raw WS₂ tablets were peeled off using the LPE method, and few-layered sheets were found in the exfoliated samples.(ii)Both bulk WS₂ and processed few-layered WS₂ could promote the decomposition of TKX-50 and reduced its activation energy; at the same time, the few-layered WS₂ had a better catalytic effect because it exposed more active sites.(iii)A possible mechanism was proposed: the WS₂ catalyzed thermal decomposition of the TKX-50 because the WS₂ improved the ability of proton transfer and promoted the initiation of the TKX-50 decomposition. The exposed active surface of the WS₂ few-layered sheets can be more effective in facilitating the decomposition of the TKX-50 for its stronger ability to promote proton transfer, indicating that the LPE method is a promising approach to improve the catalytic performance of WS₂

Data Availability

The (data type) data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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Journal of Nanomaterials

Preparation of Few-Layered WS2 and Its Thermal Catalysis for Dihydroxylammonium-5,5-Bistetrazole-1,1-Diolate

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Experiment

2.1. Materials

2.2. Preparation of Few-Layered WS2

2.3. Characterization and Tests

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Structural Analysis

3.2. Morphological Analysis

3.3. Thermal Analysis

3.4. Thermokinetic Analysis

4. Conclusion

Data Availability

Conflicts of Interest

References

Copyright

Preparation of Few-Layered WS₂ and Its Thermal Catalysis for Dihydroxylammonium-5,5-Bistetrazole-1,1-Diolate

2.2. Preparation of Few-Layered WS₂