Determinants of Child Stunting, Wasting, and Underweight: Evidence from 2017 to 2018 Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey
Table 3
Multivariate logistic regression model for features associated with wasting, stunting, and underweight for children below five years of age PDHS (2017-2018).
Variables
Attributes
Stunting
Wasting
Underweight
Adjusted odd ratio (CI)
Adjusted odd ratio (CI)
Adjusted odd ratio (CI)
Child characteristics
Age of child (months)
0–6
—
—
—
7–12
0.912 (0.568–1.467) 0.705
1.051 (0.584–1.892) 0.869
0.861 (0.530–1.399) 0.546
13–24
(1.714–3.593)
0.557 (0.299–1.036) 0.065
0.854 (0.562–1.295) 0.457
25–36
(2.637–5.543)
0.436 (0.289–1.026) 0.076
1.128 (0.762–1.672) 0.548
37–48
(2.306–5.114) <
0.543 (0.244–1.087) 0.287
1.100 (0.7412–1.630) 0.636
49–60
(2.049–4.978)
0.894 (0.447–2.030) 0.792
0.862 (0.567–1.311) 0.487
Child sex
Male
—
—
—
Female
(0.608–0.929)
1.016 (0.621–1.662) 0.949
0.853 (0.679–1.071) 0.172
Child birth size
Small (<45.7 cm)
—
—
—
Average (45.7–60 cm)
(0.381–0.628)
1.291 (0.720–2.317) 0.391
(0.413–0.701)
Large (>60 cm)
(0.170–0.486)
0.161 (0.021–1.237) 0.079
(0.152–0.537)
Breastfeeding initiation
Instantly
—
—
—
Within 1st hour
0.956 (0.456–2.011) 0.916
0.965 (0.166–5.378) 0.967
1.761 (0.355–8.574) 0.468
Within 1st day
0.828 (0.500–1.370) 0.478
0.774 (0.260–2.261) 0.644
1.063 (0.408–2.744) 0.874
Breastfed
No
—
—
—
Yes
1.132 (0.985–1.766) 0.064
0.919 (0.448–1.887) 0.818
1.087 (0.333–3.547) 0.891
Postnatal checkup
No
—
—
—
Yes
1.115 (0.843–1.421) 0.440
1.018 (0.334–2.942) 0.979
1.121 (0.717–1.800) 0.617
Fresh milk consumption
No
—
—
—
Yes
1.025 (0.438–2.381) 0.926
(0.319–0.879)
0.994 (0.361–2.742) 0.991
Consumed formula milk
No
—
—
—
Yes
0.828 (0.214–3.429) 0.816
0.727 (0.315–1.676) 0.436
0.986 (0.569–1.705) 0.979
Birth order number
1st born
—
—
—
2nd–4th
1.078 (0.445–2.611) 0.859
0.978 (0.537–1.774) 0.958
1.021 (0.757–1.377) 0.829
>5
1.217 (0.440–3.224) 0.709
0.876 (0.421–1.827) 0.730
1.029 (0.737–1.435) 0.810
Maternal characteristics
Mother’s age
15–19
—
—
—
20–34
1.921 (0.504–7.319) 0.339
1.597 (0.510–4.999) 0.421
1.022 (0.541–1.931) 0.945
35–49
0.890 (0.188–4.206) 0.883
1.147 (0.274–4.803) 0.851
0.777 (0.379–1.593) 0.491
Education of mother
No education
—
—
—
Primary
(0.516–1.039)
1.162 (0.537–2.517) 0.703
0.704 (0.472–1.049) 0.085
Secondary and higher
(0.424–0.806)
0.953 (0.447–2.030) 0.900
(0.459–0.973)
Maternal BMI
Underweight
—
—
—
Normal
0.940 (0.646–1.369) 0.747
1.304 (0.578–2.947) 0.524
0.721 (0.514–1.012) 0.058
Overweight and obese
0.724 (0.488–1.076) 0.110
1.391 (0.599–3.229) 0.443
(0.403–0.850)
Mother’s employment
Not employed
—
—
—
Employed
0.880 (0.344–2.213) 0.813
(0.114–0.781)
1.162 (0.853–1.582) 0.341
Cigarette smoking
No
—
—
—
Yes
1.098 (0.629–1.017) 0.743
1.100 (0.336–3.603) 0.875
0.938 (0.299–2.942) 0.912
Iron tablets’ consumption during pregnancy
No
—
—
—
Yes
(0.627–0.982)
1.105 (0.668–1.828) 0.697
1.025 (0.467–2.250) 0.951
Socioeconomics characteristics
Geographical area
Punjab
—
—
—
Sindh
(1.570–3.170)
1.477 (0.614–3.550) 0.384
(2.275–4.929)
KPK
1.120 (0.760–1.652) 0.567
1.572 (0.649–3.809) 0.317
0.846 (0.508–1.408) 0.520
Baluchistan
(1.212–2.604)
2.176 (0.876–5.404) 0.094
(2.288–5.214)
GB
1.401 (0.860–2.279) 0.153
0.226 (0.016–1.781) 0.146
0.679 (0.331–1.383) 0.310
ICT
0.677 (0.328–1.389) 0.311
1.237 (0.308–4.729) 0.757
0.687 (0.259–1.800) 0.449
AJK
0.818 (0.516–1.347) 0.445
0.466 (0.112–1.848) 0.275
0.716 (0.371–1.316) 0.257
FATA
(1.416–3.318)
1.4160 (0.5139–3.9017) 0.501
1.569 (0.950–2.593) 0.079
Type of residence
Urbanicity
—
—
—
Rurality
1.004 (0.770–1.307) 0.909
1.023 (0.571–1.825) 0.902
0.781 (0.585–1.041) 0.115
Water source
Unimproved
—
—
—
Improved
(0.543–0.962)
0.801 (0.473–1.359) 0.411
(0.484–0.860)
Father’s education
No education
—
—
—
Primary
0.917 (0.641–1.252) 0.553
0.745 (0.320–1.715) 0.514
0.541 (0.275–1.054) 0.066
Secondary and higher
0.813 (0.621–1.074) 0.159
1.001 (0.540–1.175) 0.62
0.870 (0.519–1.454) 0.613
Toilet facility
No facility
—
—
—
Not improved
1.121 (0.750–1.675) 0.534
0.875 (0.312–2.423) 0.803
0.700 (0.465–1.024) 0.064
Improved
1.036 (0.723–1.428) 0.870
1.965 (0.871–4.421) 0.089
0.770 (0.561–1.057) 0.110
Economic status
Poor
—
—
—
Middle
(0.403–0.775)
(0.172–0.716)
(0.317–0.627)
Rich
(0.414–0.753)
(0.317–0.855)
(0.271–0.583)
base category, CI, confidence interval; KPK, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; GB, Gilgit Baltistan; ICT, Islamabad Capital Territory; AJK, Azad Jammu and Kashmir; FATA, Federally Administered Tribal Area. indicates significant value at less than 1% level of significance; indicates a significant value at less than 5% level of significance.
