|
Plant name | Extract | NPs | Size and shape | Fungal strain | Inhibition zone/MIC | Mode of action | References |
|
Beta vulgaris | Leaves | ZnO | 20 ± 2 nm spherical | Aspergillus niger | 8 mm | Inactivate the cellular metabolic activities by disrupting the cellular organelles. | [55, 56] |
Cinnamomum tamala |
Cinnamomum verum |
Brassica oleracea |
Candida albicans | 8 mm | Disrupt the genetic material eventually causing cell death. |
|
Nyctanthes arbortristis | Flower | ZnO | 20 ± 2 nm spherical | Alternaria alternate | 64 µg/mL | Interact with the outer surface of the plasma membrane when they come into contact with fungal cells. The structure of the plasma membrane is disrupted, and the permeability of the membrane is altered. The disruption of membrane structure and subsequent accumulation of NPs in the cytoplasm impede critical cell growth processes. | [57] |
Aspergillus niger | 16 µg/mL |
Botrytis cinerea | 128 µg/mL |
Fusarium oxysporum | 64 µg/mL |
Penicillium expansum | 128 µg/mL |
|
Salvia officinalis | Leaves | ZnO | 26.14 nm spherical | C. albicans SC5314 | 13 ± 3 mm | The suppression of ergosterol production and the loss of membrane integrity appeared to be the origins of antifungal activity. | [58] |
C. albicans 4175 | 14 ± 2 mm |
C. albicans 5112 | 11 ± 2 mm |
|
Cinnamomum camphora | Leaves | ZnO | 21.13 nm spherical | Alternaria alternate | 20 mg/L | Protein and nucleic acid leakage. | [59] |
|
Pterocarpus santalinus | Wood | ZnO | 15–25 nm spherical | C. albicans | 9 mm | Inactivate sulfhydryl groups which leads to produce insoluble compounds in cell wall and eventually degrade membrane-bounded enzymes, proteins, and lipids that cause cell death. | [60] |
14 mm |
20 mm |
12 mm |
|
Ziziphus nu mmularia | Leaf | ZnO | 17.33 nm | Candida spp. | 9 mm | Produce intracellular production-free radicals such as hydroxyl, singlet oxygen, superoxide, and nitric oxide that may enter into nuclear membrane and damage DNA which cause irreversible chromosomal damage eventually cell death. | [61] |
| 10 mm |
Spherical | 11 mm |
| 12 mm |
Irregular | 14 mm |
| 16 mm |
|
Momordica charantia | Fruit | CuO | 245 nm spherical | Trichophyton rubrum | 31.66 mm | They have a stronger affinity for amines and carboxyl groups on fungal cell surfaces, and their huge surface area allows for better interaction with the fungus. | [62] |
|
Bougainvillea glabra | Flower | CuO | 5–20 nm spherical | Aspergillus niger | 4-5 mm | Through their surfaces, penetrate into fungus’ cell membrane and interrupt the cellular activities. | [63] |
|
Celastrus paniculatus | Leaves | CuO | 2−10 nm spherical | F. oxysporum | 76.29 ± 1.52 | Affect macromolecule DNA, its replication, and protein synthesis, leading to fungal death. | [64] |
|
Citrus medica | Fruit | CuO | 33 nm spherical | F. culmorum | 33 mm | Produce pits in the membrane, which cause cellular components to leak out and finally cause cell death. Oxidative stress appears to be on the rise. | [65] |
F. oxysporum | 28 mm |
F. graminearum | 20 mm |
|
Syzygium aromaticum | Bud | CuO | 20 nm spherical | Penicillium spp. | 6 mm | Enter the cell wall, causing cellular component leakage and, eventually, cell death. | [66] |
|
Persea americana | Seed | Cu | 42−90 nm spherical | A. niger | 9 mm | Enzymes degradation and denaturation leads to cell death. | [67] |
A. fumigatus | 11 mm |
F. oxysporum | 8 mm |
|
Falcariavulgaris | Leaves | Cu | 20−25 nm spherical | C. albicans | 30.6 mm | Inhibits fungal growth by producing ROS and causes hyphae lysis. | [68] |
C. glabrata | 30.8 mm |
C. guilliermondii | 33.4 mm |
C. krusei | 34.8 mm |
|
Cassia fistula | Leaves | CuO | 2−38 nm spherical | Fusarium oxysporum | 91.9 ± 0.16% | Deformation of fungal cell, membrane disruption, lipid peroxidation, protein, and enzymes denaturation. | [69] |
|
Ligustrum lucidum | Leaf | Ag | 13 nm spherical | Setosphaeria turcica | 200 μg/mL | Fungal hyphae distortion was found. | [70] |
|
Psidium guajava | Leaves | Ag | 20–35 nm spherical | Rhizopus oryzae | 12.42 ± 0.11 mm | The cell became dysfunctional. NPs reach the cytoplasm and interact with sulfur-containing proteins and enzymes, interfering with DNA replication depending on the level of membrane damage. More easily access the cytoplasm or interact and disrupt cell membranes due to structural variations. | [71] |
Aspergillus niger | 10.78 ± 0.18 mm |
Saccharomyces cerevisiae | 9.71 ± 0.21 mm |
|
Panax ginseng | Roots | Ag | 50–90 nm spherical | F. graminearum | 47–51 μg/mL | Invading the fungal cell and causing damage to the cell wall and other cellular components. | [72] |
F. avenaceum |
F. poae |
F. sporotrichioides |
|
Melia azedarach | Leaves | Ag | 18–30 nm spherical | Verticillium dahlia | 51 μg/mL | By destroying membrane integrity, affecting the function of membrane-bound enzymes involved in the respiratory chain. | [73] |
|
Citrus limetta | Peel | Ag | 18 nm spherical | Candida albicans | 15 ± 0.75 mm | Cell blebs and a thick exudate deposition around the cell were induced by AgNPs, indicating intracellular material leaking. | [74] |
|
Ocimum sanctum | Leaves | Ag | 0–50 nm spherical | Candida tropicalis | 2 mm | Interaction with cytoplasm resulted in cell membrane damage. | [75] |
C. krusei | 1 mm |
C. kefyr | 5 mm |
A. niger | 3 mm |
A. flavus | 1 mm |
A. fumigatus | 2 mm |
|
Allium saralicum | Leaves | Ag | 20–40 nm spherical | C. albicans | 33.8 ± 0.44 mm | It has a number of compounds that work synergistically to prevent microbial infections. As a result, this causes significant harm to the fungal cell, resulting in its death. | [76] |
C. glabrata | 36.2 ± 1.3 mm |
C. parapsilosis | 35.2 ± 1.3 mm |
C. krusei | 40.6 ± 1.34 mm |
C. guilliermondii | 43.6 ± 1.14 mm |
|
Aloe barbadensis | Leaves | Ag | 70 nm cubical, rectangular and spherical | Aspergillus spp. | 21.8 ng/mL | Silver nanoparticles harmed not only fungal hyphae but also conidial germination, induced various deformations such as cell membrane structure, and inhibited the normal budding process of both fungal strain most likely owing to the degradation of membrane integrity. | [77] |
Rhizopus spp. |
|
Malva parviflora | Leaves | Ag | 50.6 nm spherical | Helminthosporium rostratum | 88.6% | The nanoparticles were able to enter the plasma membrane, and hindered the normal functioning of proteins in the cell membrane, causing the cells to collapse. | [78] |
Fusarium solani | 81.1% |
Fusarium oxysporum | 80.7% |
Alternaria alternate | 83.0% |
|
Rhamnus virgate | Leaves | AgO | Spherical, | Aspergillus flavus | 14.05 | Interaction of fungal hyphae, mycelia, and spores leads to inhibition of fungal cell growth. | [79] |
Aqueous | AgO | ∼20 | Aspergillus niger | 56.25 |
Ethanol | | Cuboid | Mucor racemosus | 112.5 |
| | ∼22 nm | | |
|
Croton sparsiflorus | Leaves | Ag | 16 nm spherical | Mucor spp. | 0.1 cm | By interacting with electron phosphorous and sulfur-containing molecules like DNA, they penetrate within the fungus and cause harm. | [80] |
Tricoderma spp. | 0.1 cm |
Aspergillus niger | 0.1 cm |
|
Vetiveria zizanioides, Cannabis sativa | Roots, leaves | Au | 10–35 nm spherical | Penicillium spp. | 34 mm | May have diffused readily across the cell membrane to the interior of the cell, causing DNA synthesis, repair, and replication to be slowed, resulting in cell death. | [81] |
Aspergillus spp. | 29 mm |
Aspergillus flavus | 34 mm |
Aspergillus fumigates | 34 mm |
Fusarium spp. | 29 mm |
Mucor spp. | 29 mm |
|
Brassica oleracea | Flower buds | Au | 12–22 nm colloidal | Aspergillus flavus | 5, 7, 9 mm | It simply binds to the cell wall and causes damage and cell death. | [82] |
Aspergillus niger | 5, 8, 9 mm |
Candida albicans | 5, 7, 12 mm |
|
Allium sativum | Cloves | Au | 7–21 nm spherical | C. albicans | 13.52 µg/mL | ROS generation altered fungal cell shape and morphology that leads to cell membrane damage and eventually cause cell death. | [83] |
C. tropicalis | 39.00 µg/mL |
C. crusei | 19.00 µg/mL |
C. guilliermondii | 19.00 µg/mL |
|
A. muricata | Leaves | Au | 25.5 nm spherical | A. flaws | 31 mm | Direct contact with pathogens and cause DNA breakage and eventually cell death. | [84] |
C. albicans | 42 mm |
F. oxysperium | 50 mm |
P. camemeri | 66 mm |
|