|
| Stem cell | Function | Mechanism |
|
| Mesenchymal stem cells | Immunomodulation | Decreased activation and proliferation of T cells, dendritic cells, and NK cells, thereby decreasing secretion of inflammatory cytokines including interferon gamma, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, tumor necrosis factor-α, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 [31–36]
Induction of regulatory T cell activation and IL-10 production [35, 37, 38]
Modulation of neutrophil and B cell function and differentiation [35, 37] |
| Establishment of graft vascular network | Secretion of angiogenic paracrine factors VEGF, IL-6, IL-8, HGF, PDGF, and TGF-β [39–44]
Secretion of matrix metalloproteinases [31, 45] |
| Antiapoptotic | Secretion of paracrine factors including HGF, IL-6, and TGF-β resulting in increased expression of genes protective against hypoxia [46–48] |
| Improved β cell architecture | Unknown [49] |
| β cell replacement | Differentiation into insulin-producing cells [50–54] |
|
| Adipose-derived stem cells | Establishment of graft vascular network | Secretion of angiogenic paracrine factors VEGF, HGF, bFGF, GMCSF, and TGF-β [37, 55, 56]
Differentiation into endothelial cells [57] |
| Antiapoptotic | Secretion of antiapoptotic growth factors, including HGF, GM-CSF, and TGF-β [56] |
| β cell replacement | Differentiation into insulin producing cells [58–60] |
|
| Adipose-derived stem cells + endothelial progenitor cells | Establishment a vascular network within grafts | Direct differentiation into vasculature and pericytes [61]
Release of paracrine factors [61] |
|
| Neural crest stem cells | Improved graft innervation | Neuronal differentiation [62, 63] |
|
| Human embryonic stem cells | β cell replacement | Differentiation into insulin producing cells [64–72] |
|
| Induced pluripotent stem cells | β cell replacement | Differentiation into insulin producing cells [73–75] |
|
