Cranial Nerve Affection in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Assessed by Corneal Confocal Microscopy, Smell and Taste Tests

Table 1

Characteristics of the study population.

Variable	Control, N = 23^1	Diabetes, N = 60^1	value^2
Gender (female)	16 (70%)	30 (50%)	0.14
Age (years)	16.60 (15.40–18.20)	16.90 (15.00–18.90)	0.45
HbA1c (mmol/mol)	33 (27–40)	60 (41–93)	<0.01
BMI (kg/m^2)	21.12 (16.90–30.40)	22.74 (17.63–29.61)	0.03
BMI-SDS	0.03 (−1.80–1.68)	0.57 (−2.30–1.85)	<0.01
Height (cm)	174 (158–188)	173 (150–191)	0.97
Hip circumference (cm)	98 (65–112)	98 (76–114)	0.47
Waist circumference (cm)	74 (59–92)	75 (53–100)	0.49
Tanner (stage)			0.43
4	5 (22%)	19 (32%)
5	18 (78%)	41 (68%)
SBP (mmHg)	114 (98–130)	118 (68–147)	0.22
DBP (mmHg)	71 (59–89)	77 (55–96)	0.03
Pulse (BPM)	70 (55–99)	77 (48–106)	0.21
Retinopathy (yes)	0 (NA%)	3 (5.0%)	1.00
Nephropathy (yes)	0 (NA%)	2 (3.3%)	1.00
Cholesterol (mmol/L)	3.80 (2.80–5.10)	4.10 (3.00–6.40)	0.15
LDL (mmol/L)	2.10 (1.40–3.50)	2.10 (0.50–4.10)	0.90
HDL (mmol/L)	1.30 (0.68–2.20)	1.50 (0.97–3.70)	0.04
Triglycerides (mmol/L)	0.70 (0.30–1.10)	0.90 (0.30–3.80)	0.01
Alcohol (units/week)			0.02
0	1 (4.3%)	6 (10%)
1–3	20 (87%)	28 (47%)
4–7	2 (8.7%)	17 (28%)
8–14	0 (0%)	5 (8.3%)
>15	0 (0%)	4 (6.7%)
Smoking (status)			0.63
Never	18 (78%)	47 (78%)
Previous	4 (17%)	6 (10%)
Smoke	1 (4.3%)	6 (10%)
NI	0 (0%)	1 (1.7%)
Activity (hours/week)			0.17
0	0 (0%)	5 (8.3%)
1–3	2 (8.7%)	14 (23%)
4–7	8 (35%)	19 (32%)
>7	13 (57%)	22 (37%)
Diabetes duration (years)	NA	8.5 (4.6–17.4)
HbA1c mean 5 years (mmol/mol)	NA	59 (40–95)
Total daily insulin (units/kg/day)	NA	0.85 (0.40–1.65)
Basal insulin (units/kg/day)	NA	0.39 (0.14–0.87)
Basal/total daily insulin ratio	NA	0.46 (0.24–0.72)
Time in range (%)	NA	55 (23–85)
Time in hypoglycemia (%)	NA	5.0 (0.0–15.0)

¹Median (range) for continuous; n (%) for categorical. ²Categorical variables, fisher’s exact test; continuous variable with normal-distribution, Welch two sample t-test; continuous variable with nonnormal distribution, Wilcoxon rank sum test. BMI, body mass index; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HDL, high density lipoproteins; LDL, low-density lipoproteins; n = number; NA, not available, NI, not indicated; yrs, years. Only available data of 44 adolescents. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.