Diabetes Complications and Cognitive Function in Young Adults with Youth-Onset Type 1 or Type 2 Diabetes: The SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study

Table 3

Results of cluster analysis of cross-sectional data in youth and young adults with type 2 diabetes (n = 165).

	Type 2 diabetes
	C1 (n = 66)	C2 (n = 61)	C3 (n = 38)
Cognitive function ^†
Fluid cognitive function, mean (SD)	96.8 (11.8)	84.5 (11.2)	69.2 (11.0)
Pattern comparison test (processing speed), mean (SD)	100.7 (19.2)	92.6 (15.1)	81.1 (20.6)
List sorting working memory test (working memory), mean (SD)	99.7 (12.4)	90.7 (12.4)	82.8 (13.2)
Dimensional change card sort test (cognitive flexibility), mean (SD)	98.6 (14.9)	91.2 (14.2)	77.8 (12.2)
Picture sequence memory test (episodic memory), mean (SD)	104.7 (17.4)	95.5 (10.2)	86.7 (10.4)
Flanker inhibitory control test (inhibition/attention), mean (SD)	86.6 (10.6)	79.1 (10.2)	69.0 (9.6)
Picture vocabulary test (receptive language), mean (SD)	101.6 (14.0)	89.0 (12.7)	85.8 (12.6)
Diabetes complications ^†
Mild retinopathy, n (%)	23 (34.8)	26 (42.6)	7 (18.4)
Moderate/proliferative retinopathy, n (%)	5 (7.6)	5 (8.2)	3 (7.9)
Peripheral neuropathy (yes), n (%)	7 (10.6)	8 (13.1)	13 (34.2)
Microalbuminuria (yes; ACR ≥ 30), n (%)	13 (19.7)	11 (18.0)	6 (15.8)
Clinical Factors ^†,‡
Diabetes duration (yrs), mean (SD)	10.4 (3.8)	9.5 (3.4)	9.7 (3.5)
Depressive symptoms (CESD), mean (SD)	9.8 (7.7)	12.4 (8.5)	16.0 (10.0)
HbA1c AUC, mean (SD)	7.7 (1.8)	9.8 (2.1)	7.6 (2.2)
DKA in past 12 months, n (%)	0 (0.0)	8 (13.1)	0 (0.0)
LDL cholesterol (mg/dL), mean (SD)	106.2 (38.1)	116.7 (41.2)	96.7 (26.1)
VLDL cholesterol (mg/dL), median (IQR)	23.0 (17.0, 35.0)	24.0 (16.0, 34.0)	22.0 (14.0, 30.0)
HDL cholesterol (mg/dL), mean (SD)	40.3 (9.5)	45.4 (9.4)	42.7 (9.9)
Triglycerides (mg/dL), median (IQR)	116 (85, 177)	118 (82, 172)	109 (72, 150)
Waist-to-height ratio AUC, mean (SD)	0.64 (0.09)	0.61 (0.09)	0.66 (0.10)
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg), mean (SD)	121.2 (13.1)	114.4 (9.2)	127.4 (14.9)
Central systolic blood pressure, mean (SD)	108.2 (12.3)	101.5 (8.4)	113.7 (12.0)
Central diastolic blood pressure, mean (SD)	77.7 (9.8)	77.0 (8.4)	82.4 (10.3)

CESD = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; AUC = area under the curve; HbA1c = glycated hemoglobin; DKA = diabetic ketoacidosis; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; VLDL = very-low-density lipoprotein; HDL = high-density lipoprotein. ^†Shading corresponds to the frequency (n, (%)) or magnitude (mean/median, (SD/IQR)) of the variable among participants in the respective cluster compared to the other clusters. Variables where the frequency or magnitude was statistically different across the cluster groups are shaded (p value <0.05 via chi-square/Fisher’s test (categorical) or ANOVA or Kruskal–Wallis test (continuous)). Bold values correspond to the cluster group with worse outcomes. ^‡Self-reported experience of at least one hypoglycemic event in past 12 months not included in cluster analysis due to low prevalence (<5%).