Transformer-Enhanced Traffic Load Simulation for Wear Evaluation of Bridge Expansion Joint

Table 3

Comparative performance of data-driven models for speed prediction.

Model	Detailed information	MAE (m/s)
SVM	Kernel: radial basis function	0.4321
	Regularization parameter: 5.0
ANN	Nodes in hidden layer #1: 64	0.3241
	Nodes in hidden layer #2: 32
LSTM	Nodes in hidden layer #1: 32	0.2463
	Nodes in hidden layer #2: 16
GRU	Nodes in hidden layer #1: 32	0.2316
	Nodes in hidden layer #2: 8
Seq2Seq with GRU	Encoder GRU: nodes in hidden layer #1: 32, nodes in hidden layer #2: 32	0.1961
	Decoder GRU: nodes in hidden layer #1: 32, nodes in hidden layer #2: 16
Transformer	Encoder Transformer layers: 3	0.1738
	Decoder Transformer layers: 3