Exosomes as Emerging Regulators of Immune Responses in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Table 1

Current studies of exosomes from immune cells on immune responses in T2DM.

Source	Contents	Functions	Expression in diabetic status	Immune responses	Experimental model	References
M1-polarized macrophages	miR-212-5p	Targeting SIRT2 and inhibiting Akt/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway	Upregulate	Proinflammatory	HFD mice	Qian et al. [33]
High glucose-induced macrophage RAW 264.7 cells	miR-210	Impairing glucose uptake and mitochondrial CIV complex activity and suppressed NADH dehydrogenase ubiquinone 1 alpha subcomplex 4 (NDUFA4) expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes	Upregulate	Proinflammatory	Obese diabetic mice	Tian et al. [34]
Diabetic bone marrow-derived macrophage	miR-144-5p	Transferring into bone mesenchymal stem cells to regulate bone regeneration by targeting Smad1	Upregulate	Proinflammatory	T2DM mice	Zhang et al. [35]
M2 macrophage	M2-exosomes	Promoting macrophage transformation from M1 to M2 by targeting the PI3K/AKT pathway	Upregulate	Anti-inflammatory	T2DM mice	Wang et al. [64]
M2-polarized macrophage	miR-690	Nadk as a target gene of miR-690	Upregulate	Anti-inflammatory	Obese mice	Ying et al. [36]
Natural killer cell	miR-1249-3p	Targeting SKOR1 to regulate the formation of ternary complex SMAD6/MYD88/SMURF1, which mediates glucose homeostasis by suppressing the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway	Upregulate	Anti-inflammatory	T2DM mice	Wang et al. [37]

The exosomes miR-212-5p, miR-210, and miR-144-5p are derived from immune cells and have a role in promoting inflammation in T2DM, whereas M2-exosomes, miR-690, and miR-1249-3p show anti-inflammatory effect.