The Effect of Land Cover Protection on Preventing Crime: The Case Study of the State of New York, USA

Akıner, Muhammed Ernur; Akıner, Nurdan; Akıner, İlknur

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6695542

Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology

On this page

Abstract Introduction Discussion Conclusions Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Authors’ Contributions Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2023 | Article ID 6695542 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6695542

The Effect of Land Cover Protection on Preventing Crime: The Case Study of the State of New York, USA

Muhammed Ernur Akıner,¹Nurdan Akıner,²and İlknur Akıner³

Academic Editor: Giulio Perrotta

Received14 Apr 2023

Revised28 Jun 2023

Accepted12 Jul 2023

Published19 Jul 2023

Abstract

The settlements’ traditional character and architectural texture will strengthen people’s sense of belonging and prevent migration, while local urban identity will be the most significant impediment to crime. The study investigates the relationship between the environmental and criminal conditions in New York, the world’s most diverse demographic. In New York, not every county has the same settlement or vegetation homogeneity level. To avoid the immigrant factor, the location where the offenders committed the crime was considered; crime data were statistically analyzed to assess the vegetation-crime relationship. With an interdisciplinary approach, the research also draws attention to the mean-world syndrome regarding crime and urbanization in the current cultural environment in the context of the media-violence relationship. Under the crime index category, the crimes committed were divided into major groups, and statistical analyses were performed on all the groups. The study also touches on proactive policing used in the United States. According to our findings, the keyword of sustainable development, equity, has been successfully realized in the United States. As a result, the classic scenario of income distribution disparities in the state driving citizens to crime does not apply to New York.

1. Introduction

As violence and crime are ingrained in the fusion of all civilizations, the necessity of public security and its associated topics as a police approach has a worldwide function for society. Timely and effective criminal justice programs are required. Hence, there is a steep increase in criminal studies. According to the bibliometric research undertaken by Basilio et al. [1], 3,361 writers generated 2,085 papers about crime between January 1, 1932, and September 3, 2020. Cunningham and Rochester [2] discussed the relevance of radio patrol in the police force in the city of New York in their first published research, which was published in 1933. When analyzing the police’s approach to law enforcement circumstances, the second observed that various police agencies have varied policing ideologies and defined different styles of policing [3]. The milestone of 150 publications was attained in 2019, indicating that the academy is interested in the topic. Over time, crime publications increased at a 5.10 annual percentage rate [1]. The United States has the most contributions, with 888 published papers accounting for 42.58% of all articles published on the issue of police and related themes.

Regarding overall citations, papers generated by American scholars account for 55% of the total citations. There were 421 citations for the article “What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear?” [4]. “The effects of hot spots policing on crime: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis” [5] and “Zero tolerance: a case study of police policies and practices in New York City” [6] are the two other most cited studies that deal with policing practices to reduce crime.

According to the United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Crime Resolution [7], crime prevention techniques and initiatives are classified into four broad categories [8]: first, social development and social crime prevention through social, economic, health, and educational initiatives; second, local crime prevention via communities and organizations; third, environmental design is used to prevent situational crime; and finally, there are reintegration programs for kids, inmates, and individuals who eventually return to the community.

Safe and secure urban architecture, institutional crime prevention (including local governments and police), alternative forms of justice, and a focus on social crime prevention are all examples of effective crime prevention [9]. According to the international research, good crime prevention projects can help communities create social cohesion and collaborate to enhance their quality of life [10]. Criminal justice cooperation, social considerations, preventive media assistance, landscaping initiatives, forestation and greening efforts, and some effective proactive police techniques, including community policing, should all be addressed.

Everyone should have a life with almost the same conditions due to equity, the most crucial element of sustainable development. Citizens ought not to be forced to live under various environmental conditions. People must belong to their living areas to form an urban identity. The way to do this is to create a whole soul with small pieces from each individual’s identity. The unstable environment and unplanned cities negatively affecting human psychology have become the most significant problem. Unfortunately, people had to replace their living culture with the chaotic and depressive culture of the new urban types they settled in.

There is a prejudicial approach that exists in many countries in the world. Such as, the more pollution a country has, it is involved in more crime [11]. Anonymous architecture, lost green texture, dense population, and a sense of loneliness brought about by the apartment culture offer people a difficult life psychologically [12, 13]. New York State is the most cosmopolitan and densely populated region of the United States. Due to its appeal, New York is experiencing rapid population growth and housing deprivation. People have immigrated to the United States for the American Dream. Due to the diversity in its demographic structure, this study for New York is expected to represent the entirety of America. Population, crime, and spatial data for New York State were recruited from the Division of Criminal Justice Services [14].

In a previous study, the city’s districts were dealt with for Istanbul, and no linear relationship between population density and crime was identified [15]. Likewise, there has been no significant relationship between population density and potential crime in other research studies in Berlin [16]. On the other hand, in this study on New York Counties, it was noticed that population density had a linear relationship with the number of crimes that occurred. City districts have become crime centers independent of the population. Considering New York’s state, proactive policing is the proper methodology to reduce crime in dense settlements that have already lost their urban identity [17, 18]. Proactive policing, a bias-based method [19], is an approach that protects innocent people trapped in cities with lost urban identity from the likelihood of being harmed. Protecting citizenship rights and ensuring their security should be the priority of local and central administrations; the silent majority prefers to live respectfully and follow the rules. A linear relationship between the population and crime proves that more accurate urban planning will dilute crime intensity. Troy et al. [20] examined the interaction between environmental patterns and criminal intent. Using statistical techniques, they discovered a connection between tree canopy, theft, and firearm violence in Baltimore, Maryland. Study results showed a clear inverse relationship between the frequency of particular forms of crime and the density of trees or canopies in the forest.

Wolfe and Mennis [21] presented research containing two different vegetation results regarding the crime rate in Philadelphia, USA. Possible security effects promoting or suppressing the crime rate due to vegetation were revealed. According to some studies in literature, green areas are desirable for crime [22–26]. The violence occurring in the forested areas of the university campuses was addressed by Nasar and Fisher [27]. Of course, it is wrong to have prejudices against this problem-based vegetation because statistics are more important than people think. For example, most people perceive the aircraft as unsafe and fear boarding it. However, the plane is statistically the most reliable means of transportation [28, 29]. So, while city plans are being made, the scientific approach should be kept in the foreground instead of stakeholders’ prejudices.

Glistad-Hayden et al. [30], in New Haven, Connecticut, USA, prepared a report on the potential for crime reduction. The findings of this research also endorse the results of the studies in other United States cities, such as Baltimore, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, and Portland [20, 21, 31–34]. For example, a 10% rise in the tree canopy in New Haven was estimated to lower the severe crime rate by 15% and property crime by 14%. Moreover, efficient and effective landscaping ensures further street eyes, providing more power over people who think wrongly and suspiciously.

The relationship between urban socio-vegetation and crime often depends on socioeconomic factors and life quality [15]. This situation is outside the principle of sustainable development. Therefore, it is to give priority to suburban areas considering environmental policies. According to Erjavec [35], factors that encourage more crimes daily include the unequal income distribution in today’s society, the economic downturn, the encouraging effects of numerous media reports and broadcasts, and the traditional structure of honor killings. A commercial media system also feeds on violence, stereotyping, and the promotion of worry in the age of media convergence. Numerous studies have demonstrated that frequent exposure to violent media increases feelings of uneasiness. George Gerbner did the longest-running investigation of violence on television. His groundbreaking study indicates that people who watch much TV tend to interpret the world in ways congruent with the visuals on TV [36]. As a result, viewers become increasingly nervous and afraid as their impressions of the earth match those on television. Gerbner called this the mean world syndrome.

Violence is a complex cultural and environmental impact that should not be ignored. Remember that a residential area’s refined texture should have spacious vegetation and a planned residential system. In the studies, it has been revealed that in addition to intense urbanization with the weakness of vegetation, soulless buildings trigger a psychologically depressed city life. Moreover, these studies produced similar results regardless of the development level of the countries. Statistical research findings on a state-based basis show a negative correlation between vegetation and crime rate. Compared to previous studies cited in this study, new findings regarding the relationship between crime probability and population density exist. This situation increases the originality value of the study. Therefore, the state of New York is a convenient research area for this study (see Figure 1). The study results show that even if the proactive policy is biased, its implementation in America is a realistic and necessary security approach. Working in this way is expected to be an example of the studies for other cities worldwide.

2. Methodology

Green spaces form the basis of urban landscape planning, which includes the part of urban planning. In addition to the well-known benefits of green fields, positive effects on human psychology are a scientific fact emphasized in our century [37–39]. Recent research studies prove that people living in cities with dense green spaces tend to have less aggression and violent tendencies than in places with inadequate green spaces [40, 41]. This study used New York State’s satellite image to determine the current green area status. Besides, each county’s crime statistics 2018 was obtained from the New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services [14]. Crime statistics were compiled into two groups: violent and property crimes. These two types of felony crimes were altogether mentioned as Index crimes. Whether county land area, population, and population density positively or negatively affect crime rates was investigated. For this purpose, regression analysis was used, and a correlation matrix was created using population and crime variables. Population rates and crime statistics for 2018 were tabulated.

New York State has 62 Counties, and some are known to be safer [42]. Crime figures were analyzed statistically for each crime group and divided into three main groups: high, low, and moderate, between 25 and 75 quartile. A color index for each crime level is indicated in Table 1. Accordingly, high, moderate, and low crimes are highlighted in red, yellow, and blue. Counties marked with an asterisk () are counties in the New York City.

Figure 2 displays the satellite map showing the land covers of the New York State counties. In this satellite map, both green and barren areas can be seen. Areas of lost green texture are due to inadequate urban planning, loss of urban identity in terms of architecture, flawed and unsupervised policies on urbanization, and lack of environmental awareness. Figure 3 indicates each county of the New York State’s population density distribution per kilometer square. When Figures 2 and 3 are considered together, it can be observed that population density and green area loss are directly proportional.

The regression analysis demonstrates the relationship between a single dependent variable and one or more separate variables through a mathematical equation. For example, the dependent variable in this research is the crime rate. However, population, the area in kilometers square, and population density for each county are the independent variables. The determination coefficient indicates how strong the R² symbol suggests the relationship between dependent and independent variables. For example, if the determination coefficient is close to 1, a close relationship exists between dependent and independent variables.

Another key approach to minimizing crime is leveraging the media’s direct influence and deploying proactive policing strategies. The media shape the public’s perception of crime [45]. The “inner city” and city-perimeter settlements have become significant targets for media reporting on crime. According to Danilo Yanich [46], news media portrays an “urban-suburban dimension of crime” in which the metropolis is hazardous. The police officers’ proactivity in their response to crime means not just responding to citizen calls. Instead, it means that the police decide to do something often about crime, trying to construct approaches to solve the crime or other related issues successfully [47, 48]. Figure 4 outlines the study technique in the form of a chart that clarifies the outcomes of the processes, including urban greening, media effect, and proactive policing.

3. Findings

The results derived through the regression analysis revealed a statistically significant and robust linear association between crime rate and population density. Evidence of this relationship is that the determination value coefficient is too high (see Figure 5). However, this study in the New York State, USA, revealed that, unlike previous studies in Istanbul and Berlin [15, 16], there was a strong relationship between crime rate and total population and residential area (see Figures 6 and 7). Table 2 shows that the crime intensity is higher in the New York City than in the New York State. This situation indicates that the total area of the counties is inversely proportional to the frequency of the crime that occurred in the New York State. Table 3 gives crime statistics about the five New York City counties, which are Bronx County (The Bronx), Kings County (Brooklyn), New York County (Manhattan), Queens County (Queens), and Richmond County (Staten Island).

Table 4 shows the correlation matrix to identify the impacts within the population and crime statistics along with the spatial variables. Analysis result indicates that the people of the New York State have a mass settlement, as seen from the correlation between the 2018 population and the total area in km². The correlation between the crime counts and the county area indicates that the probability of crime is high in mass settlements. The correlation between violent and property crimes, as also the property crime rate and the population, gives a clue about the psychological behaviour of the criminals in the New York State. Criminals attempt property crimes in less settled, few neighbourhoods, such as quiet places [49, 50]. On the other hand, violent crimes mainly occur in mass settlements [51, 52].

If statistical information about the crimes committed in New York State counties is considered, it is possible to specify the intensity in the three groups. For this purpose, box-plot diagrams were used and defined as moderate for the 25^th–75^th quartile, high for the upper part, and low crime for the lower leg. This categorization process, applied numerically to compare counties regarding security, is entirely meaningful (see Figure 8); three groups of crime intensities for each county are depicted in Figure 9. Red color stands for high crime according to the potential of the crime. Yellow color stands for moderate crime, and blue color stands for the level of low crime.

The relationship between the green texture and the crime frequency shows that crime intensity is high in the counties where the land cover type turns intensely from the forest and wild areas to urban areas (see Figures 2 and 9). The study clarifies that living in lucky regions with woodland and green texture is safer.

4. Discussion and Recommendations

Global insecurity has increased due to urbanization, rising social inequality, and poverty. It has been suggested that the incidence of psychosis and depression is higher in urban areas where green spaces are scarce [54]. The study of how the environment affects criminal conduct is known as environmental criminology [55]. The impact of the environment on crime motivates collaborative prevention research and yields scientific answers that may be used in social sectors. The methods outlined in this paper serve as the scientific foundation for workable solutions, such as lowering crime by merely increasing the amount of vegetation cover. Using the media to point people in the proper direction and proactive policing were also recommended in the context of providing quick assistance. These strategies highlight the notion of avoiding or lessening crime through environmental changes. Studies have demonstrated that some design modifications, which may even be done with little environmental adjustments, favour lowering crime rates.

When we look at the five counties in different parts of the New York State, where the population and population density are similar, an extraordinary situation is encountered in index crime. According to their crime intensity, these counties are Broome with high crime in the mid-south, Oneida with high crime in the mid, Putnam with low crime in the southeast, Rensselaer with moderate crime in the mid-east, and finally Niagara with moderate rate of crime in the west.

According to New York State Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation [56], Broome County has Chenango Valley State Park (450 hectare or ha) and Oquaga Creek State Park (560 ha); Oneida County has Delta Lake State Park (290 ha), Old Erie Canal State Historic Park (482 ha), Pixley Falls State Park (152 ha), and Verona Beach State Park (702 ha); Putnam County has Wonder Lake State Park (463 ha), Clarence Fahnestock State Park (5,819 ha), Donald J. Trump State Park (176 ha), Hudson Highlands State Park (3,060 ha), and Wonder Lake State Park (463 ha); Rensselaer County has Cherry Plain State Park (71 ha), Grafton Lakes State Park (1,030 ha), and Schodack Island State Park (430 ha); Niagara County has Whirlpool State Park (44 ha), Wilson-Tuscarora State Park (196 ha), De Veaux Woods State Park (21 ha), Devil’s Hole State Park (17 ha), Fort Niagara State Park (204 ha), Four Mile Creek State Park (100 ha), Golden Hill State Park (210 ha), Joseph Davis State Park (157 ha), Niagara Falls State Park (89 ha), Reservoir State Park (53 ha), Whirlpool State Park (44 ha), and Wilson-Tuscarora State Park (196 ha). Consequently, this comparison validates the correctness of the study’s results as shown in Table 5, summary of the research findings. Recommended green space strategy is used to create a barrier for protecting native species and habitats in protected areas so that they can survive in the long run [57].

The authors also have supporting recommendations for reducing the crime rate. At the point of increasing green areas, environmentalists, architects who will design correct urban planning, communication scientists who will contribute to shaping the human perception of the media correctly, and security forces with proactive policing practices can provide the desired security environment.

Urban transformation is the environmental project practice where urban development is reconsidered socially, economically, spatially, demolished, revitalized, consolidated, or restructured to make the city’s problem areas livable. Undoubtedly, every change and transformation process is painful and troublesome. The deterioration of the social fabric in the spaces has created an uncertain and dangerous environment over time. Nowadays, cities, especially urban centers used by society, are increasingly known for the concepts of “crime” or “insecurity.” Eliminating spatial inequalities and creating a structured environment with a high quality of life by creating safe urban spaces can be achieved by correctly handling the crime phenomenon in urban planning. Factors such as the width of roads, trees’ location, other landscape elements, and urban furniture area are essential in ensuring visibility. Apart from these, it is revealed that lighting is significantly sufficient, access to security forces, and a well-maintained urban environment that increase the sense of security [58]. In today’s urbanization, blind-deaf fronts and dark, desolate, and quiet places seem to encourage crime more by giving people the impression of an insecure environment. Treating the city as a livable place in every sense is necessary.

Media representatives should collaborate with the local government and partners in crime prevention on local safety and crime prevention initiatives. Education in media literacy may also enlighten how future generations must engage with the media to reduce crime and promote urban safety [59].

Law enforcement agencies have developed police tactics as they have evolved to combat crime. Community policing, problem-oriented policing, targeted policing approach, and predictive policing, where the police work proactively, are the four methods law enforcement organizations utilize in various circumstances. Proactive policing experts emphasize that crime is densely clustered in particular city areas [60]. Evidence shows that about 5% of the streets in larger cities produce 50 percent of the crime. About 1% of the streets were responsible for 25 percent of the crime. Hence, as a favorable action, the police concentrate resources in those places [61, 62]. Determine how they create a possibility of solving the underlying problems rather than just responding to particular incidents for the people [63]. About 6% of a birth cohort commits about 50% of the crime [64]. That birth cohort and those types of findings developed in criminology lead to optimizing our crime control approaches by focusing on that relatively small number of people in the population that commit a substantial proportion of the crime.

5. Conclusions

This research used official authorities’ records to examine the relationship between land type and crime in the New York counties, the United States’ most cosmopolitan state. Satellite images have been used to determine the kind of land use. Socioeconomic factors such as the level of income associated with crime, education, and population density are known to be essential. However, in a state with a demographic structure such as New York that can be considered a summary of the world, it is thought that the abovementioned socioeconomic factors will not make a remarkable difference between the counties but are similarly effective. Therefore, another concrete factor that may change the perception of security in living spaces must be revealed. This phenomenon is considered green areas and has been proposed as a hypothesis in this study. This research showed that the land structure in forest and wild types is one of the most critical factors behind low crime rates, especially in the Index crime point, including violent and property types in New York. Besides, this study supports the idea that tree canopies or woodlands are inversely proportional to severe crime rates. The two studies that the authors previously conducted on Europe and Asia show that this is a proven situation on a global scale.

The study’s conclusions have implications for establishing evidence-based planning, design, and policy initiatives to make cities more livable and deter crime by increasing the number of green spaces. This study’s findings, which attracted attention to promoting urban forestry and management beyond the concerns of recreation while also considering its role in crime prevention, are likely to serve as a reference for future researchers. It will be recognized, particularly by governors in charge of security, that including public safety considerations in the order in which tree planting sites are prioritized may have certain advantages. According to this study, crime rates and vegetated regions in New York State have a significant negative correlation. To naturally lower crime rates without expending a considerable amount of money and human resources on policing, thorough research on this issue is suggested by this finding. It is advised that joint research be conducted concurrently in healthy and developing countries to determine whether the crime is an intuitive psychological issue independent of education, money, social status, other comfortable matters, and legal circumstances.

Data Availability

The data used in this study are available from the authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Authors’ Contributions

M.E.A. and N.A. conceptualized the study; M.E.A., N.A., and I.A. proposed the methodology; M.E.A. and N.A. provided the software; M.E.A., N.A., and I.A. validated the study; M.E.A., N.A., and I.A. performed formal analysis; M.E.A., N.A., and I.A. investigated the study; M.E.A., N.A., and I.A. provided the resources; M.E.A., N.A., and I.A. performed data curation; M.E.A., N.A., and I.A. wrote the original draft; M.E.A., N.A., and I.A. reviewed and edited the article; M.E.A., N.A., and I.A. visualized the study; M.E.A. and N.A supervised the study. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

M.E.A. sincerely thanks the New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services for the County Violent Crime Counts and Rates.

References

M. P. Basilio, V. Pereira, and M. W. C. M. D. Oliveira, “Knowledge discovery in research on policing strategies: an overview of the past fifty years,” Journal of Modelling in Management, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 1372–1409, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. W. Cunningham and T. W. Rochester, “The radio patrol system of the city of New York,” Proceedings of the IRE, vol. 21, no. 9, pp. 1239–1251, 1933.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. L. Kuykendall, “Styles of community policing,” Criminology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 229–240, 1974.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Weisburd and J. E. Eck, “What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear?” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 593, no. 1, pp. 42–65, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. A. Braga, A. V. Papachristos, and D. M. Hureau, “The effects of hot spots policing on crime: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis,” Justice Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 633–663, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. A. Greene, “Zero tolerance: a case study of police policies and practices in New York City,” Crime and Delinquency, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 171–187, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Ecosoc (Un Council for Economic and Social Development), “Guidelines for the prevention of urban crime (resolution 1995/9, annex) and the Guidelines for the prevention of crime (resolution 2002/13, annex),” 2002, https://www.unodc.org/documents/commissions/CCPCJ/Crime_Resolutions/1990-1999/1995/ECOSOC/Resolution_1995-09.pdf.
View at: Google Scholar
M. Shaw, Handbook on the Crime Prevention Guidelines: Making Them Work, United Nations Publications, New York, NY, USA, 2010.
A. Amante, M. Saraiva, and T. S. Marques, “Community crime prevention in Portugal: an introduction to local safety contracts,” Crime Prevention and Community Safety, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 155–173, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. P. Stallings, P. M. Hawkins, and K. C. Ward, “Examining perceptions of crime and quality of life by residents living in a drug market intervention neighborhood,” Crime Prevention and Community Safety, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 166–188, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. F. Kuo and I. G. B. Putra, “Analyzing the relationship between air pollution and various types of crime,” PLoS One, vol. 16, no. 8, Article ID 255653, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Chen and L. Gong, “Loneliness in urbanising China,” Health and Social Care in the Community, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. e812–e822, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. E. Jeong and S. Park, “Physiological and psychological effects of visual stimulation with green plant types,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 18, no. 24, Article ID 12932, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, “2018 county violent crime counts and rates per 100,000 population,” 2019, https://www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/crimnet/ojsa/indexcrimes/2018-county-violent-rates.pdf.
View at: Google Scholar
N. Akıner and M. E. Akıner, “Impact of the architecture and environment relation on crime rates: a case study from Turkey,” New Arch - International Journal of Contemporary Architecture, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 37–44, 2016.
View at: Google Scholar
N. Akıner and M. E. Akıner, “Influence of the environmental protection on the occurrence of the felony crime, considering the impact of the media: a case study from Berlin, Germany,” in Proceedings/VI International Congress “Engineering, Ecology and Materials in the Processing Industry, pp. 768–779, Faculty of Technology, Zvornik, Herzegovina, 2019.
View at: Google Scholar
B. Hasisi, S. Perry, and M. Wolfowicz, “Proactive policing and terrorism,” in Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, International CrimePolicingRace, Ethnicity, and Crime, Oxford, UK, 2020.
View at: Google Scholar
M. P. Ashby and L. Tompson, “Routine activities and proactive police activity: a macro-scale analysis of police searches in London and New York City,” Justice Quarterly, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 109–135, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. F. Manski and D. S. Nagin, Confrontational Proactive Policing. Benefits, Costs, and Disparate Racial Impacts, The Cambridge Handbook of Policing in the United States, Cambridge, UK, 2019.
A. Troy, J. Morgan Grove, and J. O'Neil-Dunne, “The relationship between tree canopy and crime rates across an urban-rural gradient in the greater Baltimore region,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 106, no. 3, pp. 262–270, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. K. Wolfe and J. Mennis, “Does vegetation encourage or suppress urban crime? Evidence from Philadelphia, PA,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 108, no. 2-4, pp. 112–122, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. A. Burley, “Green infrastructure and violence: do new street trees mitigate violent crime?” Health and Place, vol. 54, pp. 43–49, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Chiesura, “The role of urban parks for the sustainable city,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 68, no. 1, pp. 129–138, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Hartig, M. Mang, and G. W. Evans, “Restorative effects of natural environment experiences,” Environment and Behavior, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 3–26, 1991.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. K. Mak and C. Y. Jim, “Examining fear-evoking factors in urban parks in Hong Kong,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 171, pp. 42–56, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. S. Shaffer and L. M. Anderson, “Perceptions of the security and attractiveness of urban parking lots,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 311–323, 1985.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. L. Nasar and B. Fisher, “'Hot spots' of fear and crime: a multi-method investigation,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 187–206, 1993.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Laker, “Specific phobia: flight,” Activitas Nervosa Superior, vol. 54, no. 3-4, pp. 108–117, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. B. Wilkinson, “Are you afraid to fly?” British Medical Journal, vol. 304, no. 6822, pp. 324-325, 1992.
View at: Google Scholar
K. Gilstad-Hayden, L. R. Wallace, A. Carroll-Scott et al., “Research note: greater tree canopy cover is associated with lower rates of both violent and property crime in New Haven, CT,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 143, pp. 248–253, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. H. Donovan and J. P. Prestemon, “The effect of trees on crime in portland, Oregon,” Environment and Behavior, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 3–30, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. M. Grove, D. H. Locke, and J. P. O'Neil-Dunne, “An ecology of prestige in New York City: examining the relationships among population density, socioeconomic status, group identity, and residential canopy cover,” Environmental Management, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 402–419, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. E. Kuo and W. C. Sullivan, “Environment and crime in the inner city: does vegetation reduce crime?” Environment and Behavior, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 343–367, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Troy, A. Nunery, and J. M. Grove, “The relationship between residential yard management and neighborhood crime: an analysis from Baltimore City and County,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 147, pp. 78–87, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Erjavec, “Impact of the media on crime and attitudes about crime: a qualitative study,” Journal of Criminal Investigation and Criminology/Ljubljana, vol. 65, p. 1, 2014.
View at: Google Scholar
G. Gerbner and N. Signorielli, Violence and Terror in the Mass media (No. 102), Unesco, Paris, France, 1988.
M. Sreetheran and C. C. K. Van Den Bosch, “A socio-ecological exploration of fear of crime in urban green spaces–A systematic review,” Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1–18, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Tyrväinen, A. Ojala, K. Korpela, T. Lanki, Y. Tsunetsugu, and T. Kagawa, “The influence of urban green environments on stress relief measures: a field experiment,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 38, pp. 1–9, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. D. Velarde, G. Fry, and M. Tveit, “Health effects of viewing landscapes–Landscape types in environmental psychology,” Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 199–212, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. C. Kondo, S. Han, G. H. Donovan, and J. M. MacDonald, “The association between urban trees and crime: evidence from the spread of the emerald ash borer in Cincinnati,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 157, pp. 193–199, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Liu, F. Li, J. Li, and Y. Zhang, “The relationships between urban parks, residents' physical activity, and mental health benefits: a case study from Beijing, China,” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 190, pp. 223–230, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. E. Zimring, The City that Became Safe: New York's Lessons for Urban Crime and its Control, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2011.
J. Dewitz, “National land cover database (NLCD) 2016 products: US geological survey data release,” 2019, https://www.usgs.gov/data/national-land-cover-database-nlcd-2016-products-ver-20-july-2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Geology.com, “New York state map collection; New York county map. Geology.com, farmington, NM,” 2020, https://geology.com/state-map/new-york.shtml.
View at: Google Scholar
A. K. P. Chan and V. M. S. Chan, “Public perception of crime and attitudes toward police: examining the effects of media news,” Discovery-Student E-Journal, vol. 1, pp. 215–237, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
D. Yanich, “Location, location, location: urban and suburban crime on local TV news,” Journal of Urban Affairs, vol. 23, no. 3-4, pp. 221–241, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. F. Manski and D. S. Nagin, “Assessing benefits, costs, and disparate racial impacts of confrontational proactive policing,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 114, no. 35, pp. 9308–9313, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. M. Sullivan and Z. P. O'Keeffe, “Evidence that curtailing proactive policing can reduce major crime,” Nature Human Behaviour, vol. 1, no. 10, pp. 730–737, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. E. Lewyn, “Are spread out cities really safer (or, is atlanta safer than New York),” Cleveland State Law Review, vol. 41, p. 279, 1993.
View at: Google Scholar
G. F. Vito, M. B. Blankenship, J. C. Kunselman, and G. Suresh, Statistical Analysis in Criminal justice and Criminology: A User's Guide, Waveland Press, Long Grove, IL, USA, 2020.
M. Galanter, “The vanishing trial: an examination of trials and related matters in federal and state courts,” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 459–570, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. D. Pedregal, D. I. Levine, S. Pamies-Sumner, and I. Ramage, “Towards universal social health protection in Cambodia,” Rémi Genevey, vol. 133, 2013.
View at: Google Scholar
Geology.com, “New York State map collection; Landsat satellite image of New York with County boundaries superimposed. Geology.com, Farmington, NM,” 2017, https://geology.com/county-map/new-york.shtml.
View at: Google Scholar
A. C. K. Lee, H. C. Jordan, and J. Horsley, “Value of urban green spaces in promoting healthy living and wellbeing: prospects for planning,” Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, vol. 8, pp. 131–137, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. L. Jarrell, M. J. Lynch, and P. B. Stretesky, “Green criminology and green victimization,” in The Routledge Handbook of International Crime and justice Studies, pp. 453–474, Routledge, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013.
View at: Google Scholar
New York State Office of Parks, “Recreation, and historic preservation,” 2020, https://parks.ny.gov/parks/.
View at: Google Scholar
G. Borrini-Feyerabend, N. Dudley, and T. Jaeger, “Governance of protected areas: from understanding to action,” Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Gland, Switzerland, 2021.
View at: Google Scholar
T. Schusler, L. Weiss, D. Treering, and E. Balderama, “Research note: examining the association between tree canopy, parks, and crime in Chicago,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 170, pp. 309–313, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Capobianco, The media, Crime Prevention, and Urban Safety: A Brief Discussion on media Influence and Areas for Further Exploration, International Centre for the Prevention of Crime, Montreal, UK, 2008.
R. B. Santos and R. G. Santos, “Proactive police response in property crime micro-time hot spots: results from a partially-blocked blind random controlled trial,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, vol. 37, pp. 247–265, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. A. Andresen and D. Weisburd, “Place-based policing: new directions, new challenges,” Policing: International Journal, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 310–313, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Neyroud, “De-policing and homicide,” Criminology and Public Policy, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 81–88, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Weisburd, M. K. Majmundar, H. Aden et al., “Proactive policing: a summary of the report of the national academies of sciences, engineering, and medicine,” Asian Journal of Criminology, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 145–177, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
O. Falk, M. Wallinius, S. Lundström, T. Frisell, H. Anckarsäter, and N. Kerekes, “The 1% of the population accountable for 63% of all violent crime convictions,” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 559–571, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2023 Muhammed Ernur Akıner et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

444

Downloads

233

Citations