Abstract
Social media has become an increasingly vital tool for human resource management (HRM) in many parts of the globe. However, Asian societies have adopted social media for HRM at a lesser rate than Western cultures, which are more egalitarian and open, leading to greater comfort with using social media for professional interactions, even with superiors. This article provides a comprehensive literature review on the use of social media in HRM in Asian societies. The review analyzes 590 studies published between 2013 and 2023, following the PRISMA protocol for systematic reviews and using VOSviewer. The results indicate that the number of publications on this topic has fluctuated, with a notable increase in interest since 2015. The most prolific countries in terms of publications are India, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand, and the UAE. The study identifies significant research clusters and discusses the difficulties encountered when implementing social media technologies in HRM within an Asian context. These obstacles include cultural factors such as collectivism, power distance, and privacy concerns. The controversial findings regarding the distinction between excellent research and practical implementation demonstrate the need for additional research to understand better the potential benefits and challenges of incorporating social media into HRM practices in the region.
1. Introduction
Millions of users on social media platforms such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, and Google+ are increasing rapidly yearly. The high activity level of individuals and organizations on these sites generates unlimited data daily. Organizations are currently utilizing this information for their purposes. This information has become a hub of activity for individuals and for-profit and nonprofit organizations due to its high accessibility, visibility, and free accessibility. For instance, LinkedIn, a job-oriented social media platform, stores all of a user’s professional information, which recruiters can view and utilize to attract qualified future employees. Interestingly, enterprises never initially intended to use this social media data [1].
Typical recruitment procedures include posting job openings, receiving applications, shortlisting candidates, conducting interviews, and ultimately employing individuals [2]. These traditional methods frequently rely on outsourcing, consultancies, referrals, campus recruitment, and internal promotions [3]. Nonetheless, the emergence of online job portals and social media platforms has transformed candidate screening and shortlisting [4]. Academic research indicates that recruiters now use a variety of platforms to evaluate employment candidates [5]. This trend is exemplified by the increasing popularity of social media platforms in recruitment and employment practices, transforming how job seekers explore new opportunities and employers search for qualified candidates [6].
Social media (SM) was initially used for talent search and recruitment. However, the use of SM has expanded beyond that. Today, HR departments use SM for various functions, including talent acquisition, selection, internal communication, training, onboarding, and team building. SM can be utilized to identify and connect with potential candidates, learn more about their skills and qualifications, conduct background checks, communicate with employees, deliver training and development programs, and build employee relationships [7].
SMs provide users with a professional platform for updating and showcasing their proficiencies, such as qualifications, work experience, and abilities, thereby increasing the likelihood that employers will find talent matching their specific requirements [8]. These platforms also increase the possibility that multiple positions matching the qualifications of individual users will be displayed on professional websites [9]. From an organizational standpoint, SM provides employers access to a large pool of potential candidates for open positions, streamlining the hiring process and reducing time and cost expenditures [10].
The hesitant waltz between Asian human resource management (HRM) and social media presents a fascinating case study of the interplay of technology and cultural norms. While Western counterparts have readily embraced digital communication channels, Asian contexts face unique challenges rooted in deep-seated cultural values. Collectivism, a cornerstone of many Asian societies, prioritizes group harmony and collective decision-making [11]. Open social media interactions with superiors or colleagues can seem disruptive or disrespectful, potentially impacting group cohesion and individual comfort. Imagine an employee in a hierarchical organization with strong collectivist values; using a company LinkedIn page for critical feedback might evoke anxiety, fearing it could disrupt group equilibrium. Power distance, another influential cultural factor, emphasizes formal communication channels and hierarchical structures. Social media’s informality and direct communication can create discomfort, particularly when engaging with superiors or addressing sensitive HR matters. Consider an employee in a high-power distance culture; providing constructive feedback to their manager via a company app might feel inappropriate, prompting them to seek refuge in formal channels like written reports or one-on-one meetings.
However, in recent years, recruiters in some Asian countries increasingly rely on social networking sites to hire qualified candidates [12]. Designed to facilitate the exchange of personal and professional interests, these platforms have surpassed conventional recruitment techniques owing to their ease of use and extensive candidate pool [13]. LinkedIn stands out among SMs as the most convenient and effective website for employers and job seekers. LinkedIn was the most preferred platform for hiring individuals to fill vacant job roles, superseding Facebook, Twitter, Google Plus, YouTube, and Instagram [14].
As SMs have a growing impact on human resource management (HRM) practices, notably employability and recruitment, they have attracted increasing scholarly interest [15]. Nonetheless, knowledge on this topic remains dispersed across numerous publications, making it challenging to completely comprehend existing findings’ managerial and theoretical implications and extract pertinent insights [3]. This gap in the literature underscores the need for a critical synthesis of previous studies to systematically establish productive directions for future research on the effectiveness, efficiency, and function of SM in HRM practices. Therefore, the present study is aimed at organizing and synthesizing these scattered studies, providing a comprehensive and up-to-date summary of existing knowledge in this field.
A systematic literature review (SLR) of 590 existing studies concentrating on the relationship between social media (SM) and human resource management (HRM) was conducted from 2013 to June 2023. The primary objective of this SLR is to provide valuable insights for both research and practice, thereby facilitating the broader adoption of SM among users and generating more excellent value for HRM professionals and individuals. The review was guided by the research questions listed in the study’s justification: How is the human resource management literature evolving in light of the pervasive adoption of professional social media? What aspects of human resource management concerning professional social media are highlighted in the literature? What research implications does the use of social media have for the field of human resource management?
Previous systematic literature reviews on the relationship between social media use and human resource management apply a few publications to be analyzed, for example, reference [1] Integration of social media into HRM practices: a bibliometric overview published in 2021. Based on 87 published papers from the Web of Science database between 2010 and 2020, this article found that Facebook and LinkedIn are the two most popular sites among hiring professionals, with the former providing primarily behavioural information and the latter job-related information. Another article is in reference [5], published in 2020: The Influence of Online Professional Social Media in Human Resource Management: A Systematic Literature Review. Based on 45 articles from the Scopus and Web of Science databases between 2009 and 2020, the study indicated that HRM processes had altered dramatically since the inception of SM, arousing substantial interest among scholars.
Research conducted with limited datasets needs help documenting complex human elements, such as interpersonal interactions and the routine aspects of organizational activities [16]. Nevertheless, these issues may be solvable by utilizing the capabilities of big data. An illustrative example is the systematic analysis of employees’ language tones on social media platforms, such as Facebook posts, enabling HRM researchers to recognize patterns and changes in subtle human element nuances previously deemed ambiguous [17]. Therefore, adopting a big data strategy becomes essential for HRM research projects.
In addition, previous research disregards the significant regional or national differences in adopting social media (SM) for employment-related purposes, which can be attributed to differences in Internet accessibility and connection speeds. Typically, prosperous nations such as the United States, the Netherlands, Germany, the UK, Australia, and Canada have more advanced Internet infrastructure, allowing for greater use of online platforms. In contrast, developing nations such as India and Indonesia are constrained in Internet accessibility and speed, limiting their capacity to completely leverage social media for employment [18]. However, the emerging trend of AI in HRM presents exciting possibilities. AI-powered tools can streamline recruitment, personalize learning, enhance engagement, and bolster employer branding. Empirical evidence suggests that Asian HR professionals recognize AI’s potential impact [19–21]. While cultural considerations remain, the synergy between social media and AI holds immense promise for revolutionizing HRM in Asia, paving the way for more efficient, personalized, and engaging work.
Consequently, this systematic literature review’s (SLR) tripartite emphasis on methods, theory, and implications constitutes a significant contribution. In terms of methodology, the review exhaustively catalogues a variety of aspects, such as the evolution of publications over time, the geographic scope of the selected studies, and data analysis techniques used in those studies. At the theoretical level, the SLR identifies emerging and saturated themes by synthesizing the findings of extant studies, thereby providing a comprehensive perspective on the field. Moreover, at the level of implications, the review exceeds regular reporting by establishing a broader research agenda and identifying gaps resulting from each theme. This approach ensures that the study has a tangible impact on scholarship by providing a visual overview of prospective research areas uncovered by the SLR. Thus, the review’s threefold emphasis considerably advances knowledge in social media for human resource management.
2. Materials and Methods
The research adhered to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) protocol, which involves a systematic approach to identifying, screening, and incorporating relevant articles [22]. The process is shown in Figure 1. Thus, the articles were selected to address SM and HRM issues. To ensure relevance and rigour, the selected articles were verified using subject area (business, management and accounting, social sciences, economics, econometrics, and finance), document type (article), publication stage (final), language (English), countries (Asia), and recurrence of at least three times. Publish or Perish 8.8.4384 for Windows was used for careful filtering. After a thorough screening, 590 articles were collected and analyzed.
VOSviewer 1.6.19 for Windows analyzes data, and after Publishing or Releasing 8.8.4384 for Windows, it converts it to ris format. VOSviewer visualizes and analyses scientific literature networks. Its main features are network visualization, where entities like articles are nodes and relationships are links; overlay mapping, which adds metadata like citation counts or publication years to nodes; and density visualization, which shows attribute intensity in the network. Bibliometric studies benefit from their ability to identify critical articles, collaborations, and research trends in a field [23].
VOSviewer determines colour clusters or groups of things. Each cluster contains items that are more closely connected than other clusters. VOSviewer colours each cluster, making distinguishing on the network map easier. A data analysis’s circle or node size indicates an item’s importance. The item’s network influence increases with the circle size. A circle’s size depends on its frequency and number of connections to other objects. Shared linkages improve similarity.
Similarity enhances space proximity [24]. Word clouds are used to visualize text data representations, with the size of each word according to its frequency or relevance in the original text. The bigger the term in the cloud, the more often it appears in the original text. Words with more significant font sizes are considered more important or crucial to the overall message [25].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Result
Figure 2 provides insights into the frequency of publications on HRM from 2013 to 2023 (June).
Publications have fluctuated during observation. Seven 2013 research articles in this field showed moderate interest. However, it increased over time. 2014 had six publications, a slight decrease. After that, publications increased each year. Research activity increased significantly in 2015, with 14 publications. Publications increased in succeeding years. Twenty-four papers were published in 2017 compared to 18 in 2016, demonstrating research progress. In 2018, 31 social media and HR publications showed an increasing interest in the area. 2019 saw 53 publications. In 2020, publications dropped to 62. The COVID-19 pandemic may have altered research priorities, causing this drop. 107 publications were published in 2021, reflecting renewed interest. This trend continued into 2022, when 176 papers showed a substantial increase in research on this topic. However, 2023 data cannot be accessible until June, resulting in 92 publications. The figure may be updated with second-half statistics. Figure 3 reveals the countries with significant SM and HRM in Asia.
India, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand, and the UAE dominate in publication numbers. Despite Internet connectivity issues, India and Indonesia have become leading researchers in this sector. India leads in research activities with 165 articles. China publishes 112 articles about social media and human resources. India and Indonesia publish more than the UAE, Saudi Arabia, and South Korea, but low Internet connectivity does not inevitably hinder research production. Despite Internet connectivity challenges, research infrastructure, institutional support, and academic interest can raise publication numbers. Malaysia’s 58 papers on this topic show its interest in studying social media and human resources. Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Taiwan, South Korea, and Thailand publish research, albeit in smaller numbers.
Figure 4 demonstrates Asian academics’ social media and HRM publication preferences across ten journal platforms. “Sustainability Switzerland” is the most popular journal for Asian scholars, with 17 publications. “Frontiers in Psychology” released 16 articles on social media and HRM psychology shortly after. Seven publications in the “International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering” reveal that academics are actively studying technology and HRM in social media. The “International Journal of Data and Network Science” published six articles demonstrating the growing importance of data-driven research in this field. Several journals, including “Aslib Journal of Information Management,” “"Computers in Human Behaviour,” “International Journal of Human Computer Interaction,” and “International Journal of Organisational Analysis,” received five publications.
Asian scholars continue to study social media’s behavioural and technological aspects in human resource management in “Behaviour and Information Technology” and “International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications,” which received four publications. Aslib Journal of Information Management (Q2, Emerald), Computers in Human Behaviour (Q1, Elsevier), International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction (Q1, Taylor & Francis), and Behaviour and Information Technology (Q1, Taylor & Francis) are affiliated with prominent and respected academic publishers. These journals are prestigious for scientific study so that nonnative English speakers may need help with writing and fluency. Asian scholars can overcome these challenges with perseverance and a focus on high-quality research.
To create the word cloud in Figure 5, the authors’ keywords were extracted from the corpus of 590 documents.
At a glance, the amount of terms reveals that words connected to HRM and SM, such as social media, employees, management, technology, and adoption, are among the most popular words in the cloud. They are, however, only a beginning point for analysis and should be used in concert with other data visualization and analysis approaches to gain complete knowledge of the underlying text data. Figure 6 shows the research clusters that were identified after processing with VOSviewer.
The scattered dots suggest that SM and HRM knowledge is scattered throughout publications, confirming that it is difficult to fully comprehend existing findings’ practical and theoretical implications and extract critical insights [3]. Data analysis reveals 77 concepts and 11 clusters. Circle or node size denotes importance. Circle size reflects network importance. The frequency and number of linkages define a circle’s size [24]. Table 1 shows the clusters.
Based on total link strength and occurrences, the 11 most highly studied interconnections of SM and HRM are cluster 2 (45/58), cluster 1 (38/43), cluster 4 (32/45), cluster 3 (26/39), cluster 5 (26/31), cluster 9 (23/36), cluster 8 (18/29), cluster 7(17/31), cluster 6 (15/24), cluster 10 (14/21), and cluster 11(8/15).
Cluster 1 is labelled Social Media and Digital Talent Management. This cluster paints a clear picture: social media is revolutionizing HR practices. The implications are vast, from multichannel recruitment across diverse contexts to employer branding tailored to specific platforms and fostering employee engagement through digital collaboration. HR professionals must adapt, acquire new skill sets, and navigate ethical considerations in this evolving landscape. Organizations that embrace this shift can build a robust talent pipeline, attract top talent, and create a more engaged workforce, shaping the future of digital talent management.
Cluster 2 is labelled Social Media as Blockchain Technology in Organizational Recruitment. This cluster explores how social media blockchain could revolutionize Taiwanese recruitment. This cluster offers a balanced perspective on this transformative technology by analyzing its potential to streamline and secure the process and broader impacts and challenges like scalability and adoption. This suggests a future with more efficient, transparent, and secure recruitment but highlights the need for careful implementation to address potential limitations.
Cluster 3 is labelled Building Resilient HRM via Social Media. This cluster sheds light on the potential of social media in building resilient human resource management (HRM) strategies across diverse contexts. By comparing approaches in Hong Kong, Indonesia, and the UAE and conducting a comprehensive literature review, this cluster explores how social media platforms can be harnessed for resilience training. This implies the possibility of tailoring social media-based interventions to specific cultural contexts, fostering more robust employee well-being, adaptability, and ability to navigate challenges in a globalized world. However, further research is needed to understand the effectiveness and nuances of such interventions across different cultural settings.
Cluster 4 is labelled Harnessing Social Media and Social Capital for Talent Acquisition with Machine Learning. This cluster delves into the controversial realm of using machine learning to analyze social media and identify an individual’s “social capital” for talent acquisition. While the potential for efficient recruitment based on online connections is enticing, ethical concerns arise. Through an empirical study, this cluster investigates the feasibility and potential pitfalls of such methods, raising questions about algorithmic bias, data privacy, and the potential for discrimination based on online behaviour. Ultimately, the implication lies in carefully balancing the efficiency gains with ethical considerations, ensuring responsible implementation of machine learning in talent acquisition while navigating the complex world of social capital in the digital age.
Cluster 5 is Social Media Integration in HRM: Transforming Consumer Behaviour and Recruitment Practices. This cluster explores Facebook’s transformative power in HRM, impacting customer engagement and recruitment. Investigating “customer behaviour transformation,” it examines how HRM leverages Facebook to influence customer decisions and brand perception, suggesting a shift towards personalized experiences. Analyzing “revolutionized recruitment” reveals how Facebook facilitates sourcing, attracting, and engaging candidates, potentially streamlining the process and reaching more expansive talent pools. This multifaceted approach highlights Facebook’s potential to reshape HRM but emphasizes ethical considerations surrounding data privacy and targeted advertising in customer interactions and recruitment practices. Responsible implementation is crucial to ensure positive outcomes for customers and potential employees.
Cluster 6 is Comparative Analysis of e-HRM and Social Media for Talent Management. This cluster delves into a critical comparison: e-HRM (electronic human resource management) versus social media for talent management. Examining how each approach contributes to organizational performance and employee retention, this cluster uses Jordan as a case study to expose the unique challenges and opportunities associated with each method in this cultural context. This comparative analysis offers valuable insights for organizations worldwide navigating the rapidly evolving talent management landscape. By understanding the strengths, weaknesses, and cultural nuances of both e-HRM and social media, organizations can make informed decisions about which approach, or a combination thereof, best suits their specific needs and cultural context, ultimately leading to improved talent acquisition, engagement, and retention.
Cluster 7 is labelled Relationship between HRM, Social Media, and e-WOM (Word of Mouth) regarding likes, comments, and shares. The cluster dives into the intricate dance between HRM, social media, and e-WOM (electronic word of mouth), examining how likes, comments, and shares weave a complex tapestry of online interactions influencing employee perceptions and organizational outcomes. This promises valuable insights for academics and practitioners alike. By illuminating the impact of e-WOM, the cluster can equip HRM professionals with strategies to leverage social media effectively, potentially fostering positive employee sentiment, enhancing employer branding, and ultimately influencing critical organizational outcomes. This understanding can help shape more informed HR practices and empower organizations to navigate the dynamic world of online reputation management in the digital age.
Cluster 8, aptly titled “Social Media in Building Successful Employer Communities in the World of Tourism,” paints a vibrant picture of how tourism employers leverage social media platforms to build thriving online communities. These communities, fostered through engagement and collaboration, ultimately become powerful tools for attracting, engaging, and retaining top talent. By dissecting successful cases and identifying key strategies, the cluster offers a roadmap for any tourism organization seeking to harness this community power. This shift holds exciting implications: It not only opens new avenues for talent acquisition and retention but also fosters a positive and collaborative work environment, potentially leading to a more engaged and productive workforce within the tourism industry. The message is clear: embrace the power of social media communities and watch your tourism business flourish!
Cluster 9, titled “Harnessing the Cloud for Data-Driven HRM in a Social Media Age,” paints a clear picture: cloud technology and social media analytics are transforming HRM into a data-driven powerhouse. Organizations can make informed decisions across various HR functions by leveraging cloud platforms to analyze HR data and social media insights on employee sentiment, talent acquisition, and brand perception.
As the cluster demonstrates, this data-driven approach can lead to improved employee engagement, retention, and overall organizational effectiveness. The implication is clear: embracing this transformative trend through cloud and social media analytics empowers organizations to build a robust talent pipeline, foster a positive work environment, and achieve significant performance gains in the competitive world of HRM.
Cluster 10, titled “Influence of Social Media on Communication and Society”, delves into the intricate relationship between social media, communication, and society in China. Examining how deeply embedded platforms reshape communication patterns and influence diverse societal aspects offers key insights for navigating this complex landscape. Understanding the Chinese context, anticipating future trends, and making informed decisions based on social media’s multifaceted influence empower researchers, policymakers, and businesses to contribute to positive social change in China. This cluster’s findings hold substantial value for anyone seeking to comprehend and engage with the transformative power of social media in shaping China’s future.
Cluster 11 is labelled Integration of Technology Acceptance Model in Understanding Social Media Adoption. This cluster unlocks key drivers behind university students’ social media adoption. This knowledge carries significant implications: targeted interventions based on perceived usefulness and ease of use, curriculum development incorporating relevant online tools, bridging the digital divide by addressing adoption barriers, and anticipating future trends to adapt proactively. Ultimately, cluster 11’s TAM-driven insights empower universities to harness social media for educational purposes, enhance student engagement, and create a more inclusive and effective learning environment.
An analysis of term frequency within identified clusters using VOSviewer’s “total occurrence” metric reveals the research landscape in social media and talent management. While a high cumulative occurrence can signal potential saturation, indicating an abundance of existing studies, it is crucial to delve deeper for a comprehensive understanding.
Clusters 2, 4, and 1 stand out with their high total occurrence, suggesting that they might be well-trodden ground. Cluster 2, focusing on “Social Media as Blockchain Technology in Organizational Recruitment,” and cluster 4, exploring “Harnessing Social Media and Social Capital for Talent Acquisition with Machine Learning,” likely hold numerous studies, potentially requiring meticulous navigation to avoid redundancy or limited novelty. Similarly, cluster 1, investigating “Social Media and Digital Talent Management,” demands careful consideration of existing knowledge before venturing into new research avenues.
On the other hand, clusters 6, 10, and 11 present an exciting counterpoint with their lower total occurrence. Cluster 6, delving into the “Comparative Analysis of e-HRM and Social Media for Talent Management,” hints at potential knowledge gaps waiting to be filled. Likewise, cluster 10, investigating the “Influence of Social Media on Communication and Society,” and cluster 11, focusing on the “Technology Acceptance Model in Understanding Social Media Adoption,” beckon researchers with their unexplored territories. These areas represent fertile ground for novel research questions and potentially groundbreaking discoveries.
3.2. Discussion
3.2.1. Unveiling Research Landscape: Saturation and Gaps in Social Media and Talent Management in Asia
While the ideal and applicability of social media in human resource management (HRM) research remain contentious, a closer examination reveals promising avenues for exploration. Notably, Asian researchers have navigated this terrain successfully, achieving publication in esteemed publishers like Aslib Journal of Information Management (Emerald), Computers in Human Behaviour (Elsevier), and International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction (Taylor & Francis). Their publications highlight the potential benefits of integrating social media into HRM systems by focusing on current and popular topics.
Three key areas emerge from this research: Blockchain Technology in Organizational Recruitment (this strand investigates the potential of social media platforms to streamline recruitment processes, enhance candidate evaluation, and lead to better overall outcomes) [5], Leveraging Social Capital for Talent Acquisition (this research emphasizes the value of online networks and connections in identifying and attracting top talent) [6], and Social Media and Digital Talent Management (this research delves into practical methods for managing and nurturing talent using digital platforms). While promising, the sheer volume of published research suggests potential saturation in this area. Researchers must carefully navigate existing knowledge and seek novel contributions to avoid redundancy. Saturation in these areas highlights the need to explore other facets of social media’s impact on HRM.
While saturated clusters offer valuable insights, groundbreaking discoveries often lie in less-trodden paths. Clusters with their lower total occurrence beckon researchers with exciting opportunities: (1)Comparative analysis: e-HRM vs. social media for talent management (cluster 6). This domain delves into the comparative analysis of traditional e-HRM and social media platforms. Such research is crucial to objectively assess their strengths, weaknesses, and potential synergies, informing optimal talent management strategies in a rapidly evolving landscape(2)Societal impact: social media in organizational communication (cluster 10). This area transcends HRM, exploring the broader societal impact of social media on communication practices. Investigating its influence on employee engagement, reputation management, and ethical considerations empowers organizations to navigate the complex online environment responsibly(3)TAM-based adoption: understanding social media integration in HRM (cluster 11). This strand utilizes the TAM framework to assess individual and organizational adoption of social media in HRM. By addressing barriers and developing tailored strategies, researchers can equip organizations to maximize these tools’ effectiveness and sustained use
These less-explored frontiers hold immense potential for groundbreaking discoveries, offering valuable insights for future research and shaping the role of social media in talent management and organizational communication in Asian settings.
While the potential benefits of social media in HRM are promising, practical implementation faces significant challenges in the Asian context. The technology acceptance model (TAM), a well-established framework for understanding user adoption of technology, provides valuable insights into these challenges [26]. TAM suggests that perceived usefulness, ease of use, and social influences significantly impact user acceptance [27]. Interestingly, research reveals a distant or less prominent connection between e-HRM and TAM in Asia (Figure 6). This suggests that factors beyond the core TAM elements influence user acceptance [24]. Cultural differences, technological infrastructure limitations, and organizational readiness levels might contribute to this perceived distance. Furthermore, the limited research on user acceptance of social media technology for HRM in Asia highlights a crucial gap. The vast distance between HRM and TAM in Figure 6 suggests that employees need to pay more attention to these technologies’ perceived usefulness, ease of use, and social influence in their specific context [23].
3.2.2. TAM and Asian Contexts: Cultural Nuances and Applicability
Despite TAM’s established utility in understanding technology adoption [28–30], its efficacy in the Asian context requires nuanced analysis. Studies suggest that its explanatory power might be limited compared to other regions [11, 31]. This gap potentially stems from cultural differences like higher collectivism and power distance in Asian societies [11, 31]. These factors can influence perceptions of technology’s utility and usability, impacting adoption behaviour. For instance, collectivism might prioritize group norms over individual preferences in technology evaluation, affecting perceived usefulness. Similarly, higher power distance could influence how individuals perceive and interact with technology promoted by authority figures.
In China, social media platforms may be perceived as facilitating hierarchical communication, predominantly from managers to employees [32]. In societies characterized by a strong emphasis on individualism, such as the United States, social media platforms can be perceived as a means for employees to establish interpersonal connections and exchange information beyond the confines of the formal organizational structure [33]. Consequently, it is plausible that the association between HRM and TAM could exhibit a diminished strength within the Asian context compared to other global regions. This implies that additional variables, such as cultural values, might significantly influence the utilization of social media technology for HRM objectives in the Asian context.
Collectivism is a cultural factor that can potentially influence the relatively sluggish uptake of social media for HRM in the Asian context. Asian cultures are more inclined towards prioritizing collective objectives and fostering group cohesion than Western cultures [34]. Therefore, individuals residing in Asian cultures may be reluctant to employ social media platforms for professional purposes due to apprehensions regarding the potential impact of their online behaviour on their interpersonal connections with coworkers and superiors. The prioritization of maintaining harmonious relationships and preserving social cohesion may supersede the perceived advantages of utilizing social media for HRM.
Another salient cultural factor is power distance, which pertains to how unequal power distribution is accepted and expected within a given society [35]. Asian cultures frequently demonstrate a greater degree of power distance than Western cultures. In these societies, individuals may exhibit a greater reluctance to utilize social media platforms to communicate with their superiors or individuals occupying higher social positions. This hesitancy can be attributed to their perception of such behaviour as inappropriate or conflicting with established power dynamics.
The Confucian values, which have a deep historical and cultural foundation in numerous Asian nations, exert a substantial influence. Confucianism places significant emphasis on respecting authority, adhering to hierarchical structures, and upholding traditional practices [36]. As a result, individuals within Asian cultures may demonstrate hesitancy in embracing social media for HRM, as technology in a manner that challenges established authority structures may be perceived as disrespectful or disruptive.
Privacy concerns pose a significant obstacle to the widespread implementation of social media for HRM in Asia. The heightened concerns regarding privacy observed among individuals in Asian cultures can be attributed to historical experiences of government surveillance in certain countries within the region. For example, Facebook previously had a presence in China but was subsequently prohibited from operating in the country after the Urumqi riots in 2009. According to the Chinese government, individuals advocating for independence utilized Facebook to communicate during the riots, leading to the loss of approximately 200 lives [37]. The Indonesian government has indicated that it may impose restrictions on Facebook, Twitter, and Google operations if these platforms fail to comply with the mandated registration requirements [38]. India implemented a comprehensive ban on 59 Chinese applications, notably the popular social media platform TikTok [39]. The Saudi Arabian government has blocked access to Wikipedia and Google Translate. These platforms were being utilized to bypass the filters placed on blocked websites by translating their content. YouTube is currently accessible without restrictions, but the government has formulated plans to implement regulations on local companies that create content for this platform. But Twitter and Facebook are widely used in the country [40]. The cautiousness exhibited by individuals may result in a hesitancy to disclose personal information on social media platforms, thereby constraining the potential efficacy of social media in HRM endeavours that necessitate the exchange of confidential data.
Project GLOBE study based on manager behaviours divides Asia into Confucian Asia (Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, China, and Japan) and Southern Asia (India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, and Iran). Despite being a part of Asia, the Middle East is referred to as a distinct region due to its particular history, culture, and politics [41]. This affirms that there is no singular Asian HRM model that differentiates Asian countries from the rest of the world [42]. Suppose there are any distinctive aspects in how managers operate their companies in Asia. In that case, it is likely to be a common trait observed in certain Asian nations rather than universally applicable across the region.
Considering the differences between East, West, Central, South, and Southeast Asia, incorporating social media in human resource management (HRM) may have significant ramifications. Social media platforms are effective recruitment and talent acquisition instruments for HRM. However, each Asian region has its own cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic characteristics, which may impact the efficacy of social media recruitment strategies. In East Asia, where hierarchical relationships are highly valued, traditional recruitment methods such as personal referrals and job fairs may still carry more weight than online platforms. In Southeast Asia, however, where social media use is prevalent, platforms such as LinkedIn and Facebook or local equivalents such as JobStreet may be highly effective at attracting talent.
The selection of social media platforms and modes of communication in Asia exhibits variability and preference among users. In China, WeChat holds a significant presence, while LINE is widely used in Japan, and in India, WhatsApp enjoys widespread popularity [43]. The existence of regional disparities requires the implementation of a tailored strategy for integrating social media into human resource management to facilitate efficient communication, collaboration, and engagement among the various geographical areas. Implementing social media policies and practices in HRM is influenced by the cultural norms and privacy preferences that differ across various Asian regions. Certain regions, such as Central Asia, may present heightened privacy concerns due to individuals’ increased hesitancy in disclosing confidential information online.
The comparatively low adoption of social media for human resource management (HRM) in Asian contexts vis-à-vis their Western counterparts necessitates critically examining the cultural factors impeding its integration. In collectivistic societies, where group harmony and collective decision-making reign supreme, online interactions with superiors or colleagues can be perceived as disruptive or disrespectful, potentially jeopardizing group cohesion and individual comfort. Consider, for instance, an employee in a hierarchical organization with robust collectivist values. The mere prospect of utilizing a company LinkedIn page for critical feedback might evoke anxiety, fearing it could disrupt the delicate equilibrium of the group. Consequently, internal social media platforms meticulously designed with robust anonymity features and group-based communication tools could serve as a bridge, facilitating information sharing and discussion while preserving face and collective harmony.
Similarly, high-power distance cultures, emphasizing formal communication channels and hierarchical structures, can experience discomfort with the informality and direct communication inherent in social media, particularly when engaging with superiors or addressing sensitive HR matters. Envisage an employee in a company characterized by a strong power distance orientation. Providing constructive feedback to their manager via a company app might feel inappropriate, prompting them to seek refuge in formal channels like written reports or one-on-one meetings. Training managers and employees on respectful online communication protocols and encouraging open feedback through gamified platforms or anonymous suggestion boxes integrated within social media tools can be instrumental in navigating this divide.
While these cultural factors present undeniable challenges, they are not insurmountable obstacles. By developing and deploying tailored implementation strategies, modifying platforms to address cultural sensitivities, and fostering trust through robust data security and transparent communication, Asian organizations can bridge the cultural divide and unlock the transformative potential of social media for HRM. This journey promises enhanced employee engagement, streamlined processes, and a broader cultural shift towards embracing digital communication opportunities for reimagining HRM practices and forging a future of empowered and engaged workforces in the Asian context.
4. Conclusions
Publications on various topics demonstrate a growing acceptance of social media’s applicability to HRM research in Asia. These contributions aid in the comprehension of the role of social media in enhancing HRM practices in the region. While Asian researchers have successfully published articles on the benefits and possibilities of utilizing social media as a modern HRM system, adopting and implementing these technologies confront obstacles. Asia’s cultural context may account for some of the difficulties in implementation. Collectivism, the main difference between the West and the East, may hinder the adoption of social media technologies for human resource management. Cultural factors and potential concerns regarding privacy, security, and trust contribute to the difficulties associated with implementing social media technologies for human resource management. Organizations must carefully consider and resolve these cultural and contextual factors to ensure successful implementation and utilization when adopting and integrating social media into HRM systems.
Further research and evaluation of cultural nuances will help provide a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with implementing social media technologies for HRM in Asian societies. The analysis was limited in scope due to our exclusive reliance on articles sourced from the Scopus database. Including a half-year publication from 2023 may have further constrained the breadth of our study. To surmount these inherent constraints, forthcoming investigations contemplate the adoption of a comparative analysis methodology that integrates the Web of Science (WoS) database while simultaneously extending the temporal scope for the inclusion of scholarly articles.
Data Availability
The data supporting this article are from datasets that have been cited.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their sincere gratitude for the generous support provided by Lambung Mangkurat University in facilitating this research endeavour. This study is funded by the Lambung Mangkurat University (research grant number: 615/UN8/PG/2023).