Moral Hazard and the Demand for Dental Treatment: Evidence from a Nationally Representative Survey in Thailand

Table 4

Estimated results of dental care utilization, expenditure, and use of dental treatments in the previous 12 Months.

Variables	Dental Care	Dental	Dental Care	Preventive				Basic Restorative		Major Restorative
	Utilization	Visits	Expenditure	Exam	Scaling	Sealant	Fluoride	Filling	Extraction	Root canal	Denture	Orthodontic
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
	Probit	Tobit	Tobit	Probit	Probit	Probit	Probit	Probit	Probit	Probit	Probit	Probit
Gender (reference: Male)
Female	0.025	0.244	193.115	0.005	0.018	−0.003	0.002	0.027	−0.075	−0.004	0.012	0.036
	(0.001)	(0.048)	(46.284)	(0.005)	(0.009)	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.008)	(0.009)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.005)
Age (reference: 65 years and over)
0–15 years	0.009	0.711	−474.685	−0.017	0.201	−0.001	—	0.280	−0.304	−0.011	—	0.113
	(0.007)	(0.221)	(207.016)	(0.022)	(0.042)	(0.005)	—	(0.046)	(0.031)	(0.013)	—	(0.026)
16–24 years	−0.010	0.748	−345.222	−0.015	0.155	−0.002	0.005	0.109	−0.174	−0.014	−0.157	0.125
	(0.003)	(0.114)	(107.879)	(0.012)	(0.019)	(0.003)	(0.007)	(0.018)	(0.021)	(0.007)	(0.012)	(0.012)
25–34 years	−0.016	0.446	−328.846	−0.004	0.168	−0.001	—	0.090	−0.134	−0.018		0.093
	(0.003)	(0.103)	(99.121)	(0.011)	(0.018)	(0.003)	—	(0.015)	(0.020)	(0.007)	(0.012)	(0.008)
35–44 years	−0.012	−0.097	−438.216	−0.027	0.213	−0.001	−0.001	0.092	−0.116	−0.001	−0.146	0.027
	(0.002)	(0.093)	(92.205)	(0.009)	(0.016)	(0.003)	(0.002)	(0.013)	(0.018)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.006)
45–54 years	−0.004	−0.103	−190.108	−0.028	0.154	0.001	−0.000	0.083	−0.035	0.003	−0.136	0.003
	(0.002)	(0.082)	(82.675)	(0.008)	(0.014)	(0.003)	(0.002)	(0.012)	(0.016)	(0.007)	(0.012)	(0.003)
55–64 years	0.005	−0.132	−127.115	−0.011	0.074	0.000	0.002	0.053	0.002	0.012	−0.090	—
	(0.002)	(0.077)	(78.895)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.011)	(0.015)	(0.007)	(0.012)	—
Religion (reference: Buddhism)
Islam	−0.002	−0.212	−40.886	−0.014	−0.027	0.001	—	0.055	0.007	0.002	0.006	−0.025
	(0.003)	(0.114)	(106.007)	(0.010)	(0.020)	(0.003)	—	(0.020)	(0.021)	(0.009)	(0.012)	(0.011)
Christianity	−0.006	−0.131	294.897	0.039	0.042	0.024	—	−0.027	−0.013	−0.011	—	−0.011
	(0.006)	(0.290)	(287.311)	(0.033)	(0.054)	(0.026)	—	(0.045)	(0.054)	(0.018)	—	(0.031)
Other religions	−0.012	−0.848	−943.448	—	0.334	—	—	0.084	—	—	—	—
	(0.035)	(1.357)	(1,081.451)	—	(0.260)	—	—	(0.240)	—	—	—	—
Nationality (reference: Thai)
Other nationalities	−0.042	0.088	663.722	0.077	−0.148	—	—	0.009	0.115	0.048	−0.005	0.087
	(0.002)	(0.403)	(360.105)	(0.064)	(0.055)	—	—	(0.068)	(0.075)	(0.058)	(0.040)	(0.067)
Stateless	−0.041	0.116	−6,801.716	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
	(0.009)	(2.299)	(229,756.698)	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Level of Education (Reference: No formal education)
Preschool	0.013	0.181	−150.149	0.005	−0.017	—	—	0.008	0.025	−0.006	−0.027	−
	(0.003)	(0.156)	(166.064)	(0.012)	(0.029)	—	—	(0.021)	(0.031)	(0.007)	(0.016)	−
Primary school	0.009	0.222	118.194	0.002	0.007	—	—	0.045	0.004	0.010	−0.033	−0.006
	(0.002)	(0.152)	(159.311)	(0.012)	(0.028)	—	—	(0.021)	(0.030)	(0.007)	(0.016)	(0.025)
Secondary school	0.019	0.200	240.452	−0.001	0.081	—	—	0.075	−0.083	0.023	−0.029	0.025
	(0.003)	(0.162)	(167.028)	(0.013)	(0.030)	—	—	(0.022)	(0.033)	(0.009)	(0.017)	(0.025)
High school	0.024	0.297	243.296	−0.002	0.141	—	—	0.104	−0.162	0.028	−0.046	0.016
	(0.003)	(0.161)	(165.983)	(0.013)	(0.030)	—	—	(0.022)	(0.032)	(0.009)	(0.017)	(0.025)
Diploma	0.034	0.304	179.218	0.015	0.135	—	—	0.091	−0.161	0.033	−0.038	0.022
	(0.004)	(0.179)	(182.100)	(0.016)	(0.034)	—	—	(0.026)	(0.036)	(0.011)	(0.019)	(0.026)
Bachelor’s degree	0.039	0.417	295.624	0.025	0.178	—	—	0.108	−0.241	0.030	−0.059	0.039
	(0.004)	(0.165)	(169.245)	(0.014)	(0.031)	—	—	(0.023)	(0.033)	(0.009)	(0.016)	(0.025)
Higher than bachelor’s degree	0.071	0.444	334.758	0.031	0.181	—	—	0.124	−0.307	0.045	−0.065	0.040
	(0.008)	(0.195)	(195.491)	(0.019)	(0.037)	—	—	(0.030)	(0.037)	(0.013)	(0.018)	(0.028)
Marital status (reference: Single)
Married	0.001	−0.150	−58.967	0.018	−0.037	−0.005	0.002	0.008	0.056	0.005	0.013	−0.019
	(0.002)	(0.067)	(62.397)	(0.006)	(0.012)	(0.003)	(0.002)	(0.010)	(0.013)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.006)
Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−0.007	−0.231	5.112	0.011	−0.038	−0.003	0.000	0.003	0.066	−0.000	0.011	0.005
	(0.002)	(0.089)	(85.966)	(0.008)	(0.016)	(0.003)	(0.002)	(0.014)	(0.017)	(0.006)	(0.008)	(0.015)
Occupation (reference: Public servant)
Professional	−0.003	−0.081	−102.815	0.000	−0.008	0.001	0.005	−0.017	−0.012	0.010	−0.015	0.002
	(0.005)	(0.136)	(128.249)	(0.013)	(0.025)	(0.003)	(0.009)	(0.019)	(0.029)	(0.008)	(0.014)	(0.015)
Technician	−0.006	−0.009	−12.272	−0.002	−0.007	0.003	—	−0.004	−0.038	−0.003	0.014	0.003
	(0.005)	(0.158)	(147.025)	(0.015)	(0.029)	(0.004)	—	(0.023)	(0.033)	(0.009)	(0.019)	(0.017)
Clerk	−0.011	0.037	43.660	−0.026	−0.042	0.006	—	0.021	0.024	−0.002	−0.004	−0.014
	(0.005)	(0.162)	(148.119)	(0.014)	(0.029)	(0.005)	—	(0.024)	(0.034)	(0.009)	(0.020)	(0.016)
Sales/Service worker	−0.016	−0.196	18.739	−0.005	−0.062	0.006	−0.001	0.045	0.045	0.009	−0.008	−0.008
	(0.004)	(0.126)	(115.603)	(0.012)	(0.023)	(0.003)	(0.006)	(0.019)	(0.025)	(0.007)	(0.012)	(0.014)
Farmer	−0.007	−0.034	124.620	−0.007	−0.106	0.000	−0.003	0.018	0.095	0.001	−0.006	−0.008
	(0.005)	(0.131)	(122.859)	(0.012)	(0.024)	(0.002)	(0.006)	(0.020)	(0.026)	(0.008)	(0.012)	(0.017)
Crafts person	−0.014	−0.077	−47.868	−0.001	−0.117	−0.001	—	−0.001	0.112	−0.001	0.029	0.013
	(0.005)	(0.149)	(139.763)	(0.014)	(0.027)	(0.002)	—	(0.022)	(0.029)	(0.009)	(0.016)	(0.020)
Factory worker	−0.018	−0.105	−97.728	−0.024	−0.092	0.011∗	—	0.040	0.073	0.004	0.014	−0.001
	(0.005)	(0.162)	(150.567)	(0.015)	(0.029)	(0.007)	—	(0.025)	(0.032)	(0.011)	(0.019)	(0.020)
Unskilled worker	−0.019	0.098	130.442	−0.003	−0.122	0.001	—	0.005	0.115	0.004	0.028	−0.025
	(0.005)	(0.157)	(149.083)	(0.015)	(0.028)	(0.003)	—	(0.024)	(0.031)	(0.011)	(0.017)	(0.023)
Unemployed	−0.015	0.034	75.175	0.022	−0.053	0.002	−0.002	0.017	0.021	0.010	0.002	0.005
	(0.005)	(0.129)	(118.801)	(0.012)	(0.024)	(0.002)	(0.006)	(0.019)	(0.025)	(0.007)	(0.012)	(0.015)
Average Monthly Income (unit: baht)	0.001	0.001	0.004	0.001	0.001	0.001	−0.001	−0.001	−0.001	0.001	0.001	0.001
	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.001)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)	(0.000)
Municipal area (reference: Outside municipal area)
Within municipal area	−0.005	0.042	−16.866	−0.003	0.022	0.001	0.000	0.010	−0.030	−0.001	0.000	0.004
	(0.001)	(0.049)	(47.606)	(0.005)	(0.009)	(0.001)	(0.002)	(0.008)	(0.009)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.006)
Region (reference: Bangkok)
Central	−0.016	0.126	−247.155	−0.026	−0.062	0.002	0.001	0.009	0.066	−0.005	0.019	0.014
	(0.003)	(0.085)	(75.183)	(0.010)	(0.016)	(0.002)	(0.003)	(0.014)	(0.017)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.008)
Northern	−0.005	0.309	−343.530	−0.028	−0.076	0.002	−0.001	−0.031	0.092	−0.003	0.023	0.039
	(0.003)	(0.090)	(80.814)	(0.010)	(0.016)	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.014)	(0.017)	(0.006)	(0.007)	(0.009)
Northeast	−0.014	0.100	−394.861	−0.013	−0.084	−0.000	0.000	−0.054	0.117	−0.004	0.014∗	0.028
	(0.003)	(0.093)	(84.790)	(0.011)	(0.017)	(0.002)	(0.003)	(0.015)	(0.018)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.009)
Southern	−0.012	0.087	−164.938	−0.022	−0.088	0.003	0.002	−0.006	0.103	−0.002	0.022	0.006
	(0.003)	(0.096)	(85.147)	(0.011)	(0.017)	(0.002)	(0.004)	(0.016)	(0.018)	(0.007)	(0.008)	(0.009)
Year of dental care visits (reference: 2015)
2017	0.026	0.131	−152.943	0.006	−0.025	−0.002	0.002	0.003	0.022	−0.010	−0.004	0.017
	(0.002)	(0.061)	(59.915)	(0.006)	(0.011)	(0.002)	(0.003)	(0.010)	(0.011)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.009)
2019	0.013	0.007	−215.100	0.006	−0.005	−0.003	−	−0.008	0.017	−0.008	−0.000	0.012
	(0.002)	(0.065)	(64.219)	(0.006)	(0.012)	(0.001)	−	(0.010)	(0.012)	(0.004)	(0.006)	(0.010)
Place of dental visits (reference: Community hospital)
Health center	—	−0.044	−958.004	0.076	0.041	−0.007	0.003	−0.013	−0.054	−0.018	−0.037	—
	—	(0.079)	(98.354)	(0.011)	(0.015)	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.012)	(0.014)	(0.007)	(0.006)	—
Public general/regional hospital	—	−0.076	−53.822	0.015	0.012	−0.000	0.001	0.027	−0.052	0.003	0.005	−0.004
	—	(0.067)	(72.960)	(0.006)	(0.012)	(0.004)	(0.002)	(0.011)	(0.012)	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.010)
University hospital	—	0.376	1,127.807	−0.015	0.109	0.002	0.026	−0.033	−0.180	0.031	−0.018	0.056
	—	(0.251)	(234.740)	(0.018)	(0.046)	(0.013)	(0.029)	(0.034)	(0.051)	(0.025)	(0.022)	(0.032)
Private hospital	—	−0.160	868.169	0.023	0.014	−0.007	0.013	0.037	−0.104	−0.004	−0.015	0.044
	—	(0.155)	(141.857)	(0.017)	(0.026)	(0.006)	(0.015)	(0.025)	(0.031)	(0.012)	(0.015)	(0.018)
Private clinic	—	−0.107	754.169	−0.023	0.044	−0.007	0.000	0.017	−0.067	−0.014	0.001	0.044
	—	(0.104)	(100.775)	(0.008)	(0.018)	(0.005)	(0.003)	(0.016)	(0.021)	(0.008)	(0.012)	(0.012)
Locally unqualified providers	—	−0.841	912.782	−0.001	−	—	—	—	−0.357	—	0.466	—
	—	(0.470)	(379.648)	(0.045)	−	—	—	—	(0.037)	—	(0.107)	—
Mobile dental unit	—	0.182	—	0.231	0.332	—	—	−0.047	−0.309	—	—	—
	—	(0.254)	—	(0.050)	(0.048)	—	—	(0.037)	(0.027)	—	—	—
School	—	−0.539	—	0.777	−0.092	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
	—	(0.669)	—	(0.111)	(0.093)	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Dental Insurance Coverage (Reference: SSS)
Uninsured	0.034	0.410	2,103.760	0.027	−0.038	0.029	—	0.003	−0.032	0.022	0.011	0.013
	(0.013)	(0.324)	(265.346)	(0.035)	(0.061)	(0.031)	—	(0.051)	(0.064)	(0.024)	(0.029)	(0.014)
UCS	−0.036	0.170	−73.543	0.021	−0.111	−0.001	—	0.016	0.054	0.006	0.009	0.012
	(0.003)	(0.099)	(99.638)	(0.009)	(0.019)	(0.002)	—	(0.016)	(0.019)	(0.004)	(0.009)	(0.006)
CSMBS	−0.010	0.230	−1,222.615	0.015	−0.034	0.001	—	0.013	−0.018	0.013	0.012	0.016
	(0.003)	(0.106)	(119.231)	(0.009)	(0.020)	(0.002)	—	(0.017)	(0.020)	(0.005)	(0.009)	(0.008)
Private insurance	0.030	0.442	486.161	0.099	−0.180	—	—	−0.025	0.057	0.044∗	0.010	0.075
	(0.012)	(0.278)	(244.514)	(0.040)	(0.041)	—	—	(0.040)	(0.055)	(0.025)	(0.026)	(0.033)
Insurance paid by employer	0.148	0.287	−529.121	0.019	0.069	0.021	—	−0.081	−0.189	0.016	0.085	0.017
	(0.025)	(0.288)	(290.715)	(0.029)	(0.058)	(0.022)	—	(0.032)	(0.062)	(0.019)	(0.053)	(0.016)
Others insurances	0.014	0.078	−1,620.995	—	−0.053	—	—	0.060	0.099	—	—	—
	(0.013)	(0.356)	(557.518)	—	(0.073)	—	—	(0.065)	(0.065)	—	—	—
Insured but have to pay extra	—	0.988	2,107.128	0.010	−0.168	0.009	—	−0.027	0.048	0.043	0.055	0.093
	—	(0.086)	(77.216)	(0.009)	(0.015)	(0.004)	—	(0.013)	(0.017)	(0.008)	(0.011)	(0.007)
Constant	—	0.783	−1,101.953	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
	—	(0.242)	(240.109)	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Observations	151,674	11,431	11,291	11,340	11,364	10,884	4,020	11,352	11,373	11,219	11,060	7,166
Pseudo R−squared	0.0441	0.0142	0.0565	0.102	0.146	0.102	0.134	0.0439	0.194	0.0923	0.219	0.418

Authors’ Calculation. Source: Thailand’s National Statistical Office. Italic numbers in parenthesis are standard error. , , .