Gut Microbiota and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Association, Mechanism, and Translational Applications

Figure 1

The main mechanisms between gut microbiota and T2DM. SCFAs mediate glucose homeostasis by energy supply for colonocytes, increasing intestinal hormone secretion and gluconeogenesis, decreasing gut permeability, maintaining intestinal anaerobic environment, and regulating host immune. Imidazole propionate and BCAAs can block insulin signaling and activate mTORC1 responsible for insulin resistance. Bile acids have effects on glucose metabolism by binding to FXR and TGR5 and stimulate the release of 5-hydroxy tryptamine in enterochromaffin cells to induce insulin resistance. LPS induces low-grade inflammation and insulin resistance by binding to TLR4.