|
| Environmental exposures | Outcomes |
|
| Prenatal and early childhood maternal tobacco smoking | Risk of childhood asthma [57], alteration of childhood respiratory symptoms [149] |
| Nicotine exposure (in utero) | Transgenerational transmission of asthma (animal model) [60, 95] |
| Maternal E-cigarette exposure | Offspring epigenetic and cognitive changes [97] |
| Second-hand smoke during pregnancy (ETS) | Transgenerational transmission of allergic asthma [120, 148] |
| Father’s environmental exposures before conception | Influence offspring’s respiratory health [98] |
| Diesel exhaust particulate (DEP) matter | Increased IgE levels in asthma (animal model) [65] |
| Lead, cadmium, and mercury | Asthma in adults, airflow obstruction [66] |
| Vanadium | Induces DNA methylation on air pollution-related asthma in children [67] |
| Occupational pesticide exposure | Symptomatic airflow obstruction in adults [68] |
| Air pollution | DNA methylation from early life to old age, childhood asthma [62, 99, 100] |
| Nickel exposure | Asthma and wheezing in susceptible adults [107, 108] |
| Indoor air pollution | Aggravates asthma in children [150] |
| Ozone | Ozone exacerbated asthma, Th1/Th2 imbalance (animal model) [152] |
| Particulate matter (PM2.5) | Promotes asthma (animal model) [154] |
| Viral respiratory infection in children | Asthma exacerbations, increased Th1 polarization, non-T2 inflammation [69, 71, 72, 129] |
| Rhinovirus | IL-33-dependent type 2 asthma exacerbations in adults [70] |
| Ascariasis | Th2 asthma in adults [102] |
| Acinetobacter lwoffii F78 prenatal administration | Prevention from childhood asthma (animal model) [103] |
| Gut microbiota | Inhibit differentiation of Th2 cytokines (animal model) [104–106] |
| OVA, HDM | T2 asthma (animal model) [73, 74] |
| Dust mite, ragweed, and aspergillus (DRA allergen) | Th2 mediated asthma (animal model) [140] |
| High folate during pregnancy | Possibility of enhancement of Th2 promoter genes [110] |
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