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Causative agent | Source and characteristics of infected organoid culture system | Findings/ objectives | References |
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Campylobacter jejuni | (i) Adult murine small intestinal organoids | (i) Infection-related genotoxicity (induction of DNA strand breaks) | (i) [86] |
Clostridium difficile | (i) iPSC-derived human intestinal organoids (ii) iPSC-derived human intestinal organoids | (i) Attenuation of Cdt B-induced cytopathic effect by exposure to HSA (ii) Neutralization of TcdB-induced cytoskeletal disarray by bacitracin | (i) [83] (ii) [84] |
Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli | (i)Adult human colon-derived organoids (ii) ESC-derived human intestinal organoids supplemented with PMN | (i) EspP-mediated proteolytic degradation of protocadherin 24, effacement of microvillar bridges of the enterocytic brush border; EspP equipped with enterotoxin-like properties (ii) In vitro modeling of EHEC enteric invasive infection | (i) [44] (ii) [49] |
Enterotoxinogenic Escherichia coli | (i) Adult human small intestinal organoids (ii) Adult human small intestinal organoids supplemented with monocyte-derived macrophages | (i) Preferential adhesion to blood group A-glycosylated epithelial surfaces via lectin EtpA (ii) Mitigation of bacteria-stimulated inflammation and intestinal barrier dysfunction by resident macrophages | (i) [30] (ii) [31] |
Listeria monocytogenes | (i) Fetal tissue-derived human intestinal organoids (ii)Adult human small intestinal “basal-out” organoids (iii) Adult murine intestinal organoids | (i) Goblet cells as preferred cell type of entry (ii) Enforced endocytotic uptake via basolateral cellular target structures E-cadherin and Met (iii) Accelerated epithelial renewal and reduction in goblet cell numbers mediated by STAT1 and STAT3 | (i) [67] (ii) [59] (iii) [72] |
Salmonella spcc. | (i) Adult human small intestinal organoids (ii) Adult murine small intestinal “apical-out” organoids (iii) Adult human ileum-derived organoids (iv) Adult murine small intestinal organoids (v) Adult murine small intestinal organoids supplemented with probiotic L. acidophilus | (i) Inducible transdifferentiation of enterocytes into M cells as favored portal of entry (ii) Preference of apical transmission route; luminal shedding of infected enterocytes (iii) Invasion and intracellular dispersion dependent on exploitation of host cell cytoskeleton (iv) Disintegration of epithelial Zonula occludens, enhanced NF-κB signaling; upregulation of goblet cell gene markers (v) Reversal of infection-induced upregulation of Wnt3 and Toll-like receptor 2 and 4 | (i) [54] (ii) [59] (iii) [60] (iv) [61, 62] (v) [63] |
Shigella flexneri | (i) Adult human colon-derived organoids (ii) Adult human ileum-derived organoids pretreated with TNF α to amplify M cell population (iii) Adult human colon-derived organoids (iv) Adult human intestinal organoids | (i) Production of adhesive biofilm dependent on luminal exposure to glucose and bile salts (ii) Preferred host cell invasion via M cell transcytosis, enhanced NF-κB signaling; upregulation of MUC2 expression (iii) Polymerization of actin fibers to facilitate intracellular trafficking; enhanced NF-κB signaling (iv) Anti-infective effectiveness of bacteriophages | (i) [37] (ii) [38] (iii) [39] (iv) [41] |
Vibrio cholerae | (i) Swelling assay conducted in human adult rectum-derived organoids (ii) iPSC-derived human intestinal organoids | (i) Neutralization of CT by monovalent and multivalent metanitrophenyl α-galactoside-bound polymers (ii) In vitro modeling of cholera enteric infection | (i) [21] (ii) [23] |
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